Jack Benny and American Radio Comedy: An Interview with Kathy Fuller-Seeley (Part One)

 When I was in middle school, there was for a brief time an amazing radio station in Atlanta that was totally programmed with classic radio comedy and drama, which sent me down a rabbit hole trying to learn everything I could about old time radio. Ever since, I have been a fan. Witness my earlier post celebrating the wonders of the Columbia Radio Workshop and my discovery of the OTRCAT website where you could find full runs of vintage series at 5 bucks a disc, This past year, I have fallen down that rabbit hole again because of the number of shows that can be found on podcasts. Somehow vintage Dragnet, Lux Theater, Damon Runyon Theater, and Jack Benny show, among others, have put me to sleep during the pandemic, My interest in Jack Benny goes back to middle school but has taken on renewed interest since I moved to the Eastern Columbia Building in Downtown LA, just a few doors down from the May Company where Jack met his future wife, Mary Livingstone, and the home of a department store which many fans believe is where Jack went Christmas Shopping in a famous episode of the series.

For Christmas this year, among other things, my wife gave me a copy of Kathryn H. Fuller-Seeley’s Jack Benny and the Golden Age of American Radio Comedy, a wonderful book which provides the historical context I needed to listen to the great Jack Benny and Fred Allen episodes with a new level of appreciation. She offers so many different frames for understanding the historical importance of the program in terms of its place in the evolution of radio comedy, in historical representations of race and gender, in terms of cross-overs between radio shows and in terms of the comedian’s relationship with his sponsors, all important insights into American cultural history and in terms of what they teach us about the evolution of American radio. Because of my great love of this book, I reached out to its author, who is an old friend, and asked if she would agree to be interviewed. She has shared some rich tidbits from the book here, but if the is of interest, you will want to read the whole book.

Classic radio comedy and drama has been a neglected topic in media studies for a long time but we are starting to see more scholarship in this space, including your book. What factors are contributing to greater scholarly interest in these vintage radio programs?

That’s a great question, Henry, and I have a shorter answer, or a longer one that could become a 30-page lit review, haha. My views might be quite idiosyncratic, as I was trained in a history PhD program in the late 1980s, versus a media studies program, and of course I have opinions that might differ from others!

My work stands, of course, on the shoulders of giants. Within media studies, the formative books in the US radio history field have come from Michele Hilmes and Susan Douglas, (the former first investigating the ways Hollywood interacted with radio, the latter coming from a technological history background to chart the formation of early radio broadcasting).  Erik Barnouw published his epic trilogy on broadcasting history in 1966-70. 

The only claim I might make is that my book is the first academic book to take a sustained look at Jack Benny’s radio career. I learned so much about him from Hilmes, Douglas and Barnouw. Because of their examples and their mentorship, there is now a vibrant field of radio history and radio/audio-media studies. Increasing interest in historical and contemporary comedy and humor studies, in media studies and American Studies, is also encouraging scholars to study outstanding performers of the past.

Why nobody had tackled the topic of Jack Benny before was a mystery to me, but perhaps it was due to commercial network radio being even more of a “bad object” to US media scholars than television. (The British could at least be proud of the BBC). Jack Benny was US radio’s most iconic performer, so perhaps he shouldered that burden of not being worthy of discussion. Radio’s ephemeral nature, existing only as audio, and broadcast live by the networks back in its “golden age,” meant that many media scholars, drawn to the visuality of film, overlooked radio.

US radio seemed (to most critics) completely compromised by corporate control. The dominance of two networks, the “sameness” of top-rated radio programs (dominated by a small handful of comedians and singers from 1932-1955), the overwhelming prevalence of commercial concerns through advertising and the control of programming by advertising agencies and sponsors, all kept scholars away. The paucity of substantial critical radio criticism until after 1946 (when John Crosby, Jack Gould and others) did not help.  And the lack of extensive official collections of recordings and contextual documents (apart from the amazing NBC collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society) make studying US radio history a huge challenge. 

However, there has long been a parallel stream of US radio history research that comes from US history, American Studies and history of technology, areas that have studied radio broadcasting as a major mid-20thcentury cultural and political force. (topics include FDR’s fireside chats, the propaganda of Father Coughlin and Huey Long, ethnic radio in Chicago, Amos ‘n Andy, Fred Allen, radio’s role in World War II,etc.) Historians are often immersed in paper archives, so a lack of actual broadcast recordings did not totally deter them, as they delved into scripts, corporate, government or personal archives and technical documents. 

Fans and collectors of what became known as “Old Time Radio” also played a significant role in enabling the study of radio history. As Nora Patterson’s research shows, it was the work of fans from the 1930s to the 1970s (continuing today with the wonderful International Jack Benny Club and other organizations and individuals) diving into dumpsters to retrieve transcription discs, creating and sharing taped versions of old shows, that created program archives. Old radio shows, broadcast live, were almost never “re-run,” and recordings of programs were not officially kept by the networks or sponsors, or often even the performers. Fans over the years assembled checklists of programs, located rare recordings of rehearsals and repeat performances for the West Coast, and through their passion for the old shows, made a substantial chunk of old radio accessible to listeners today (and now programs are increasingly available in digital format). I was fortunate when studying Jack Benny’s radio program (encompassing over 900 episodes across 23 years) that about 700 recordings have been assembled by fans. My other contribution to Jack Benny research has been to labor to make the other approximately 240 episodes for which there are no recordings (Benny’s early formative years 1932-1935) available published in script form, dug up from the Benny papers at UCLA. The scripts are fascinating to read.  See Jack Benny's Lost Radio Broadcasts, Volume One: May 2 - July 27, 1932 (by Jack Benny and Harry Conn, edited and with introduction by Kathy Fuller-Seeley) Bear Manor, 2020.

If you want a brief bibliography of some of my favorite classic US radio history books, it would include, these, plus others I have mentioned in subsequent responses….

Hilmes, Michele. Radio voices: American broadcasting, 1922-1952.

Hilmes, Michele.  Hollywood and Broadcasting

Douglas, Susan. Listening In: Radio and the American Imagination   

Douglas, Susan, Inventing American Broadcasting

Barnouw, Erik. A History of Broadcasting in the United States: 1. A Tower of Babel: to 1933. Vol. 1. 

Barnouw, Erik. A history of broadcasting in the United States: Volume 2: The golden web: 1933 to 1953.

Barnouw, Erik. The Image Empire: A History of Broadcasting in the United States, Volume III--from 1953. 

 Havig, Alan. Fred Allen's radio comedy. 

 Ely, Melvin.  The Adventures of Amos n Andy

 Cohen, Lizabeth,. Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago

 Wertheim, Arthur Frank. Radio comedy. 

 Horten, Gerd. Radio goes to war: The cultural politics of propaganda during World War II. 

Brinkley, Alan. Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, & the Great Depression. 

Lenthall, Bruce. Radio's America: The Great Depression and the Rise of Modern Mass Culture.  

I am of course very interested in the transition which Jack Benny makes from vaudeville to radio. What are some aspects of vaudeville that stay with him and what needs to be shed as he makes those adjustments?

 In the book I talk about Jack’s earliest episodes of his radio program in May 1932, and it seemed to me that, at that moment,  he had not really thought through how radio was going to be different from vaudeville. Jack had been on the vaudeville stage since age 16, as he moved around the small time Midwestern circuits being a violinist who interjected a bit of musical humorous byplay into his performances (first with a partner, but after World War I as a single). He learned how to perform comedy lines during his time in the Navy, participating in a variety show for charity. By 1920, he played the violin less and began talking more. In the mid-1920s he rose from regional circuits to top national vaudeville houses. Benny began to model his routines on those of the newer “suave” comics like Frank Fay, who wore fine evening dress and spoke directly and informally to the audience, telling tales and stand-up jokes (and in Fay’s case, slaying any hecklers in the audience).

Frank Faye

Jack Benny followed Fay’s career path to become a prominent (albeit much better-liked) “master of ceremonies” at the legendary Palace in New York and in top vaudeville theaters across the US.  Benny now was a genial “Broadway Romeo,” a middle-class white Midwesterner with almost no references to ethnicity in his jokes or tone of voice, well-dressed, mild-mannered, but still the fellow for whom things always go wrong. As “MC” Benny interacted with the other acts he introduced, and he told his stories standing at the front of the stage. 

That was the character Jack Benny brought to radio. What he had NOT counted upon was how much new material radio demanded at each performance. No longer would one well-crafted 17-minute monologue last an entire year as Benny traversed the country from week to week across the vaudeville circuit. His material was eaten up in a single performance, broadcast to a national audience.   For the Canada Dry radio show, Benny needed to provide about 15 minutes of comic patter between the songs played by George Olsen’s band and sung by former Ziegfeld Follies chanteuse Ethel Shutta (Olsen’s wife).   I write in my book that Benny, panicking after his fourth bi-weekly radio appearances, had run through all his best material. Benny had always been dependent in vaudeville on comedy writers to help provide him material that he would then personalize and hone. Now he hired a full-time writer, former vaudevillian Harry Conn, and the two of them started crafting a kind of comedy that moved away from Benny simply performing monologues, and brought in the best of his Palace Theater-like exchanges with the other program members. As the band and singer remained the same each week, Benny and Conn crafted radio personas for them too, and Jack interacted with them in increasing amounts of dialogue. Then Benny and Conn began to interweave skits and film parodies and visiting guests, and began to turn the show into what was something like a workplace situation comedy.  Only the upheaval of changing to new sponsors and casts four different times kept that format from becoming more ingrained into the program until 1934.

Henry’s question had been about Jack Benny’s vaudeville routine. If we were only to look at Benny’s radio career, we would think that he left his vaudeville format behind in 1932. However, all throughout this period Jack continued to appear as MC and performer at vaudeville-like stage shows at the biggest picture palaces across the land, and at state fairs or other major events.

During World War II he took his stage shows to military camps in the US and overseas with the USO.  When Benny finally capitulated in October 1950 to travel to New York to perform a live television program, he reverted back to appearing before a small studio audience, standing on stage before a curtain. In a way, Benny returned to his vaudeville MC roots for television, mixing talk in front of a seated audience with staged skits involving guest stars and his radio regulars.  As Benny’s television program in the 1950s and 1960s became more structured like a situation comedy, he took his vaudeville format to Las Vegas and successfully performed there into the 1970s. Vaudeville monologues never really ended for Jack Benny, they just moved to other places. 

Jack Benny’s program lasted for several decades on radio and then on television. What are some of the ways that they were able to keep this program fresh for audiences over a duration that would be unheard of in contemporary television (with perhaps the exceptions of Saturday Night Live or The Simpsons).

The reasons for Jack Benny’s longevity in show business are many. One is character – Benny’s own comedy persona, a likeable everyman, and a person listeners and viewers could both relate to and feel superior to  – he’s the eternal loser, a classic schlemiel in Yiddish comedy. The other comic characters he surrounded himself with were memorable, a group of quirky friends, each with flaws, but an ability to get along with the rest. 

 Another is the large collection of staple comedy bits -- Benny’s writers created a large number of comic routines, scenes and interactions that could be endlessly recycled (comfortable familiarity) but also slightly twisted or tweaked each time to make it seem new or refreshed. Benny and his writers were wise to never lean too hard on any one character or routine, so that the audience might tire of them from repetition. A character could not have a major role for weeks, and then when the character returned, it was like they had never left. Superb writing and terrific comic performances played a role. 

 The pseudo-situation comedy format that Benny and his writers devised on radio also was especially flexible, and so perhaps listeners did not tire of it as quickly as a more limited program structure. Benny always said he wanted to do many different kinds of shows to provide variety, and a radio episode could be the running of the radio program, another might take place right after the show ended or beforehand during rehearsal. The gang could go off on an adventure together (like a multi-episode trip to Yosemite). The whole episode could take place at Jack’s house involving Rochester and domestic issues. Or a guest star would interact with Jack. Or the cast would perform a parody of a current film. Radio’s ability to take the performers to any location made this much easier (there were not costs to build sets or create costumes). Benny’s television programs by the mid-1950s would often be more limited to his home place, or the TV studio stage from which he gave his opening monologues. 

 It’s worth mentioning that one reason for Benny’s longevity was that radio sponsors and networks in the 1930s, 40s and 50s were far more willing to continue an existing show that earned adequate ratings/listenership. There was less competition for audiences between rival shows broadcast at the same time, and conservative sponsors were convinced to deepen connections between their star performer and the products they wished to promote. Starting in the 1960s on network television, production became so expensive, and the race to get high ratings was so heated, that programs did not have the luxury of developing over several seasons, and shows were cancelled if they did not immediately become hits.  

Kathy Fuller-Seeley is the William P. Hobby Centennial Professor of Media Studies in the Radio-TV-Film Department at the University of Texas at Austin; her research specializations are in US radio, film and TV history. Recent publications include: Jack Benny and the Golden Age of American Radio Comedy (California 2017);“Archaeologies of Fandom: Using Historical Methods to Explore Fan Cultures of the Past,” in The Routledge Companion to Media Fandom (Routledge 2018); and (edited) Jack Benny's Lost Radio Broadcasts, Volume One: May 2 - July 27, 1932 (BearManor 2020).

Just a Spoonful of Sugar: Permissive Childrearing and Walt Disney's Mary Poppins (Part Two)

Last time, I shared the first part of my reading of Mary Poppins from my book in progress about children’s culture from 1948-1968. As I hoped, I have already gotten some great responses. 

Alex Halavais posted “Kid’s Carnival” on his blog, which is well worth reading.  He writes about “the inversion of power: kids being kids without the pesky interference of grown-ups” in children’s media, an important theme which he especially explores through the example of Pippy Longstockings. He concludes about the absent parents in children’s fictions, “we don’t know how to write good parents. It isn’t easy to do. “  

But one of the striking things about the period I am studying is that there was often an effort to depict good parents in part because these stories were aimed as much at adults as at children and because they written in response to an explosion of new advice literature for Baby Boom era parents that could not avoid the challenge of discussing what good parents did. John Watson gets picked on a lot because he was so stuffy about the relations of parents and children. But there wer many more books after the war addressing these questions and most of them sought to imagine new kinds of relations between adults and children, an issue which was understood in part through the lens of anti-fascism. I will trace in this book how attitudes emerged through the Child Study movement of the Poogressive Era that would become much more widespread by the 1950s and 1960s, popularized by Benjamin Spock, but actually shaped by the thinking and advocacy of many female writers of the period. Early on, I define this discourse, which I label with many qualifications, as permissive.

Permissiveness:

• uses empathetic reflection to “take stock” and attempt to understand children’s motivations and drivers 

• values children’s sensuality, curiosity, push for independence, passion, playfulness as part of how they process the world 

• seeks to protect the rights of children to find their own voices, to pursue just solutions, to engage democratically with others in their own community

• Offers opportunities for children to achieve catharsis by working through emotional conflicts via expressive means, such as drawing pictures, writing stories, acting them out using dolls or other household materials.

• Seeks to minimize conflict by decreasing the use of authoritative statements in favor of discussions and explanations 

• seeks indirect rather than direct means to shape children’s characters 

• Is known for what it permits and accommodates rather than what it disciplines, constraints, limits and thwarts 

• gives children security and freedom to work through their own problems, watches from distance, provides resources when needed 

• embraces play as a mode of learning and as a means of communication, especially between parents and children

There are some permissive era works -- Peanuts for example -- which depend on the absence of adults, but there are many more which explore, as Mary Poppins does, the reformed relations between parents and children. And as this definition suggests, permissiveness involves more than just a shift in the authority structure of the American family.

On Facebook, Patrick Herron notes: “Reminds me of Lakoff's description in "Don't Think of an Elephant" of “strict father morality” (conservative) and “nurturant parent morality” (progressive) political frames.” This is a good point and one could argue that these distinctive ideological formulations, both of which model the American public on the structure of the family, came from the debates I am mapping here. The backlash against permissiveness has been a hallmark of conservative thought, which stresses a more discipline-centered family and dismisses engagement with children’s emotional development as producing “sniwflakes.” Both the left and the right map their aspirations for the nation onto their ideas about family life, which is the reverse side of what Lakoff is discussing.

Thanks to both for provoking further reflection through thoughtful critical engagement with the work. I welcome further such comments, since it’s going to be a while before I can send out this work for peer review and since I am not yet getting invites to give public talks on this project.

Now, back to Mary Poppins…

Poppins’ approach is perhaps best summed up by the lyrics of “A Spoonful of Sugar,” which she sings as she is encouraging the Banks children to put away their toys. A disorderly nursery was one of Watson’s  pet peeves:

“Children with toys all over the floor do not have time at the end of the day to clear them all up carefully -- handle them gently and stack them away in order. You buy a toy box but the toys are dumped in by the armful and thrown about the room at random the next day until the child comes upon the one he wants.” (142)

. Watson encourages parents to take out only one toy at a time and replace it before offering another.

Mary Poppins, however, approaches the problem in her own distinctive way:

In ev'ry job that must be done

There is an element of fun

You find the fun and SNAP!

The job's a game

and ev'ry task you undertake

Becomes a piece of cake

A lark! A spree! It's very clear to see, that a...

Spoonful full of sugar helps the medicine go down

The medicine go down

The medicine go down

Just a spoonful of sugar helps the medicine go down

In a most delightful way 

Mary Poppins issues no commands but rather she offers an invitation. She redirects their attention, using pleasure (the sugar) to inspire them to embrace the desired task and by the end of the song, the children do not want to stop, even to go on an outing. She has, in true permissive fashion, made cleaning the room into a game rather than a chore. Sugar (Mintz, 1985) was indeed a magic substance in the post-war period, added to breakfast cereals to insure that children ate them, used as a reward for good behavior in the form of suckers or candy canes at the dentist or the barbers, and resulting ultimately in a generation which was highly susceptible to childhood onset diabetes and cavities. Later in the film, Mary Poppins will get the children to take their medicine by customizing its flavor to their individual tastes: strawberry for Michael, Lime Cordial for Jane, and Rum Punch for herself. 

Mary Poppins’ mastery over child psychology is also suggested by another number where she gets the children to go to sleep by suggesting the exact opposite:

Stay awake, don't rest your head

Don't lie down upon your bed

While the moon drifts in the skies

Stay awake, don't close your eyes

Though the world is fast asleep

Though your pillow's soft and deep

You're not sleepy as you seem

Stay awake, don't nod and dream

Here, again, she does not need to issue orders, she doesn’t turn bedtime into a struggle and she does not demand that they sleep on a schedule,  but simply waits patiently for what Dreikurs describes as “logical consequences” to unfold. As Jean Webb (2002) notes in regard to the novel, Mary Poppins, as an “educator,” refuses to answer children’s questions and rarely offers direct morals, letting children make discoveries on their own as a consequence of the remarkable experiences she offers them. She exposes the Banks children  to other worlds rich in laughter, imagination, and creativity, teaching them to listen to other voices (whether those of Chimney Sweeps and Bird Ladies or a neighboring dog). When she does deliver messages, they are messages that Mr. Banks might respect, but they are often presented by Julie Andrews  in a teasing fashion. 

The book has no real equivalent to the “Spoonful of Sugar” or “Stay Awake” scenes, one of the many ways that the story was reconceptualized for a 1964 audience. There is an interesting sequence in the book, though, where Michael does naughty things all day, more or less, without any conscious motivation: 

“Michael woke up one morning with a curious feeling inside him. He knew, the moment he opened his eyes, that something was wrong but he was not quite sure what it was…. Throughout the rest of the day nothing went right with him. The hot, heavy feeling inside him made him do the most awful things, and as soon as he’d done them, he felt extraordinarily pleased and glad and thought out some more at once.” (Travers, 1934, 81, 83). 

Mary Poppins seeks to redirect his behavIor through one of her outings -- in this case, a trip around the world where he encounters stereotypical representations of various races (no doubt the reason the scene is not in the film -- another example of where racist representations are excluded but alternative ones are not provided).  In the end, she needs to settle his bad feelings with a glass of milk and a few moments of her affectionate attention:

“She stood there without saying a word, watching the milk slowly disappear. He could smell the crackling, white apron and the faint flavor of toast that hung about her so deliciously...And he thought how warm he was and how happy he felt and how lucky he was to be alive.” (Travers, 102)

There is no suggestion that this “naughty” boy needs to be disciplined. Rather, whatever bad feelings within him must be displaced by the good feelings that can only be generated through loving care. And, even if these ideas will be more fully elaborated through the film’s musical numbers, this structure of feeling points towards the permissive paradigm as it will be more fully articulated by postwar writers like Dreikurs.

Disney’s Mary Poppins is, in the end, structured around the project of “saving Mr. Banks,” helping the father to develop a more constructive relationship with his children. No such plot exists in Travers’ original novel, where, as Webb (2002)  suggests, the focus is on helping the children, “Travers is implying that the demands and stresses of capitalism separate the middle-class Banks family from the enjoyment and wonder of childhood, despite their desires.” (116)  Mr. Banks, whose name defines him through his job, must make a similar discovery in the film when he brings his children with him to his workplace. Despite his efforts to teach them the virtues of capitalist empire building, Michael refuses to give over his tuppence as a deposit, wanting instead to make a compassionate gift to the Bird Woman outside the Cathedral. When the children’s disruptions result in a run on the bank, the father faces the threat of being fired by the institution he cherishes so much. By this point, he has also found his home in a state of anarchy, overrun by soot-covered Chimney Sweeps, and in the aftermath, he has a conversation with Bert about the importance of spending more time with his children. Again, using reverse psychology, Bert tells him:

 When your little tykes are crying, you haven’t time to dry their tears and see those grateful little faces smiling up at you…. You’ve got to grind, grind, grind at that grindstone though childhood slips like sand through a sieve. And all too soon, they’ve up and grown, and then, they’ve flown and it’s too late for you to give. 

Dick Van Dyke plays Bert as an adult who has remained in touch with his inner child, who remains imaginative, playful, and jocular, who finds creative expression through his work, who understands the emotional life of children, and who still maintains the ability to speak to the adult world. In this scene, he becomes a translator between Mr. Banks and his children, helping him to take the “bitter pill” of adult life with “a spoonful of sugar.” Mr. Banks retains his dignity and maturity throughout the scene but at the bank, the father seems to internalize the other man’s anarchic spirit:  laughing, telling jokes, rejecting the dignity and decorum expected of him. The moment is rendered all the more ironic by the fact that Banks -- reverting to a boyish state -- confronts Van Dyke as  another character: the ancient bank president, who embodies the fossilization of the capitalist patriarchy.

Everyone is convinced that he might try to kill himself without the job that has defined his life, but instead, they discover he has been working in the basement, repairing the children’s kite, and he takes the children and their mother in tow to the local park, where everyone decides to fly a kite:

When you send it flying up there

All at once you're lighter than air

You can dance on the breeze

Over houses and trees

With your fist holding tight

To the string of your kite

Only then, when the children care more about their father than they do about their nanny, does Mary Poppins make her departure, flying off into the sunset, like the gunman at the end of a classic western film, having set things right within the Bank’s household. Julie Andrews play a remarkably similar plot function the following year in The Sound of Music, where as the nanny, Maria, she transforms the Van Trapp household, which was run with military precision and discipline, into one full of song and rich in emotion, as the father learns to play and in this case, perform with his children.

The persistence of such narratives suggests how deeply grounded these conflicting patterns of child-rearing were in the culture of the 1960s. It was as if the whole culture was rediscovering the pleasures of childhood play -- of turning bread and water into tea and cakes, as Bert describes it -- and the importance of fathers spending more time with their families.

Perhaps they were.

Just a Spoonful of Sugar: Permissive Childrearing and Walt Disney's Mary Poppins (Part One)

I have described my current book project as “my second childhood book,” since it is the second book I have produced about children (following The Children’s Culture Reader) and since it involves a return to core texts which helped to define my own childhood growing up in America in the 1960s. I started this book more than twenty years ago but life got in the way and in any case, I am much better situated to write this book now than I could have then.

I am roughly half-way through writing it, so it is still several years away, but I wanted to share a bit of a sneak peak with readers this week, hoping to solicit some feedback on the core argument I am making about a paradigm shift in how different generations understood the role of parenting.

Here, I am painting with broad strokes but my research has found the roots of permissive parenting in the progressive era and the work of the Child Study movement, led by mothers and female researchers who formed an alliance to try to reform and reimagine the American family. I hope to share some other bits of this work in progress as the writing takes shape.

This segment comes at the end of the introduction and as its title suggests, explores the ways competing ideas about parenting run through Walt Disney’s Mary Poppins (1964) which as it happens is the first film I remember seeing in a cinema.

Just a Spoonful of Suger

Across this book, my approach is to situate some of the most popular children’s fictions of the era in relation to the debates around child development and psychology that preoccupied my parent’s generation, seeing the first as implicitly and in some cases explicitly addressing the concerns of the later. What advice, for example, would Dr. Spock have given to the parents of Dennis the Menace or how might Margaret Mead made sense of the imaginary worlds depicted by Dr. Seuss? 

By children’s fictions, I mean fictions for and about the nature of childhood regardless of the medium through which they are told. I am suggesting some vital connections between these two expressions of ideal parenting and childhood. These links may or may not have been fully understood by the works’ creators. In some cases, there was direct contact between child-rearing advocates and children’s media-makers; they shared the same publications; they worked in the same organizations, and in some cases, the creators actively participated in the child study movement and shaped their works to reflect pedagogical insights. Yet, even here, keep in mind the various agents who process such works between their site of creation and their site of reception. Margaret Mead (1954b) makes a similar point in Childhood in Contemporary Cultures, where she describes an experiment -- “Modern Children’s Stories”-- which sought to create a children’s book to reflect insights from the Child Study movement: 

It became increasingly clear that, after all, five-year-old children don’t buy books and that the children’s needs or preferences had to be mediated by layers of other people -- mothers, fathers, grandmothers, aunts, librarians, publishers, bookstore buyers, experts -- all of whom had a full quota of fears and hope and a much more substantial quota of firmly entrenched values and prejudices than the children for whom the story had been designed …. The cultural process by which artists and writers, sensitive to changing values, prefigure those values in their work and the guardians of public taste and morals accept and reject what they produce had proved to be too complex and sensitive for such self-conscious activity. (455). 

This is what Jacqueline Rose (1984) described as the “impossibility” of children’s fiction -- such works tell us far more about adults, their values, their aspirations, their emotional needs, than such stories tell us about children’s actual experiences.

Just as child-rearing advice needs to negotiate the transition from prewar and postwar paradigms, the creators of children’s fiction similarly had to negotiate around the persistence of genre conventions, the assumptions of gatekeepers, and the biases and tastes of parents and grandparents. Consequently, we can assume that there will be residual elements at play in even the most progressive children’s texts -- some nostalgic tug towards earlier versions of proper parenting and idealized childhood. At the same time, the works discussed here made it through all of those filters and into many American households, showing some “fit” with the values with which parents were raising their children. 

Childhood in Contemporary Cultures models how cultural analysis might address such problems. Mead and Wolfenstein (1954) explain, “Songs and stories, pictures, dances, and theatrical shows are among the gifts which a child may receive from his culture.” (231) These works are ways that the culture transmits its most cherished values to the next generation. These texts tell children how adults view them, how they are meant to behave, what risks and opportunities the world offers them, and how they should feel about their circumstances. These “gifts” in many cases are literal -- these materials are things adults offer to children as treats or rewards, or at best, they are options that adults tolerate. Often, also, these are media that adults consume along with their children in the case of film and television and even works that parents read to their children in the case of chapter and picture books. 

In her essay, “The Image of the Child in Contemporary Films,” Wolfenstein (1954) argues that consequently,  media representations of childhood “embody a complex mixture of fantasy and reality… memories and dreams of adults about their own lost childhood, as well as feelings about those mysterious beings, their own children.” (277) If permissive parents no longer believed they could “produce” children according to their own specifications, they did hope to “shape” childhood through the cultural materials they provided to their children.

Though she was writing several years before, Wolfenstein might easily have been describing the emotional trajectory of  Walt Disney’s Mary Poppins (1964). P. L. Travers’ original novel was published in 1934, the film is set in 1910, but in fact, Disney’s movie, from start to finish, pits permissive ideas about child-rearing against more discipline-centered approaches, offering a model for a thoroughly modern upbringing.  If the story, as a recent film reminded us, centers around “saving Mr. Banks,” what he must be saved from are out-dated concepts about child development (which are extensions of his ideas about work that leave him cut off from his own family).

John Watson would certainly recognize the problems the characters confront at the opening of the story, where Mr. Banks advertises in the London Times in order to replace yet another Nanny. Writing in 1928, Watson acknowledges: 

Nurses are the weakest link in infant culture today. They are untrained, green and poorly mannered. They are either bullies or sentimentalists. It is no unusual thing for a home to have a succession of five nurses per year -- nor for a child to have had from 25-40 nurses and governesses from birth to 12 years of age. (147)

The Disney film establishes two very different sets of criteria by which a Nanny might be selected, the first “requirements” coming from Mr. Banks and the other, a contract of sorts by which the Banks’ children describe what they need and how they might curve their misconduct if they receive fair and just treatment.  No such scene exists in the original novel. There, we only learn:

 Mr. Banks went off with his black bag, and Mrs. Banks went into the drawing-room and sat there all day long writing letters to the papers and begging them to send some Nannies to her at once as she was waiting; and upstairs in the Nursery, Jane and Michael watched at the window and wondered who would come. They were glad Katie Nanna had gone, for they had never liked her. She was old and fat and smelt of Barley-water. (4-5)

To understand the contrast between the two approaches as represented in the Disney film,  it might be helpful to consider a chart the child psychologist, Rudolf Dreikurs offered in his book, Children: The Challenge, published in 1964, the same year Disney’s Mary Poppins was released. Here, he maps the difference between two competing paradigms.

Autocratic Society **********************************Democratic Society

Authority Figure  *******************************Knowledgeable Leader

Power                  ********************************* Influence

Pressure             ********************************* Stimulation

Demanding         *********************************  Winning Cooperation

Punishment        *********************************  Logical consequences

Reward              *********************************    Encouragement

Imposition          ****************************   Permit -- Self-determination

Domination        *********************************    Guidance

Children Seen, Not Heard *********************  Listen! Respect the child

Because I Said To   *************************** Because it is Necessary                                                

Now, consider the ways Mr. Banks describes his ideal candidate.

Required. Nanny. Firm, Respectable, No nonsense. 

A British nanny must be a gen'ral!

The future empire lies within her hands

And so the person that we need to mold the breed

Is a nanny who can give commands!

A british bank is run with precision;

a british home requires nothing less!

Tradition,discipline, and rules must be the tools,

Without them,disorder,chaos,moral disintegration;

In short you have a ghastly mess!

Here, and throughout the rest of the song, the key words and concepts -- “precision”, “firmness,” “discipline,” “rules” on the one hand and disorder and moral disintegration on the other -- come directly from the discipline-centered child-rearing advice of the early 20th century.  Ada Hart Arlitt’s The Child From One to Six (1930) warned that the child “will not know that there are laws that govern the universe unless he knows that there are laws that govern the home.” The home was to be regulated not by “mother love” but by the “kitchen time-piece.”  Here, we speak to a core concern of the behaviorist model: the idea that children should be fed and put to bed on a fixed schedule rather than giving over to their demands or desires.

Elsewhere, in the film, Mr. Banks sings, “It's 6:03 and the heirs to my dominion Are scrubbed and tubbed and adequately fed.” The central metaphors running through the prewar discourse emphasize industrial (Or in Bank’s case, commercial) processes. For John Watson, the home was to be run like a taylorized factory. Mr. Banks sums up his desire to prepare children for the competitive environment of British capitalism: “The children must be molded,shaped and taught/ That life's a looming battle to be faced and fought.” 

As in the pre-war models, the best methods for achieving these goals required the father to be the head of the household and for those under his “command” to maintain authority over the young. Like Watson, going hand in hand with this emphasis on patriarchal power within the home is a distrust of maternal sentimentality or what Banks refers to as “the slipshod, sugery, female thinking they get around here all day long.” Banks is portrayed as seeking a polite distance from his children: “I'll pat them on the head And send them off to bed.” Here, Banks follows Watson’s advice on such matters:

“There is a sensible way of treating children. Treat them as though they were young adults… Let your behavior always be objective and kindly firm. Never hug and kiss them, never let them sit in your lap. If you must, kiss them once on the forehead when they say good night. Shake hands with them in the morning. Give them a pat on the head if they have made an extraordinarily good job of a difficult task. Try it out. In a week’s time you will find how easy it is to be perfectly objective with your child and at the same time kindly. You will  be utterly ashamed of the mawkish, sentimental way you have been handling it.” (82)

The children’s advertisement represents a profoundly different model of the relations between children and adults:

If you want this choice position

Have a cheery disposition

Rosy cheeks, no warts!

Play games, all sorts

You must be kind, you must be witty

Very sweet and fairly pretty

Take us on outings, give us treats

Sing songs, bring sweets

Never be cross or cruel

Never give us castor oil or gruel

Love us as a son and daughter

And never smell of barley water

The conversation between parents and children models something closer to the family council Dreikurs (1964) describes: “Each member has the right to bring up a problem. Each has the right to be heard. Together, all seek for a solution to the problem and the majority opinion is upheld.” (301) The children assume that they have the right to contribute to solving the problem and that their insights will be helpful to the adults.The children’s attempt to assert their voice in the process is only heard because their mother insists that the parents should listen to what they have to say.

The children’s criteria emphasize an affectionate relationship, the opposite of the anti-sentimentalist approach advocated by Watson and Mr. Banks. If Banks wants a nanny who can give commands, they want one with a “cheery disposition.” She is defined by the ways that she engages with them through jokes, songs, outings, and games, and not through the expectations she places upon them. She is to win their cooperation through what she permits and the guidance she offers. And as if to dramatize this process of winning cooperation, the next verse functions as a negotiation in which the children agree not to misbehave if the nanny agrees to better respond to their needs.

If you won't scold and dominate us

We will never give you a cause to hate us

We won't hide your spectacles

So you can't see

Put toads in your bed

Or pepper in your tea

Here, they hint at some of the pranks that led Katie Nana to flee in horror, describing the Banks children as “little beasts” who need a “ruddy zookeeper.” Instead, they suggest that the nanny’s discipline-centered approach provoked them to act out, a perspective shared by many permissive child-rearing experts. Mr. Banks rejects such values outright, tearing up the children’s advertisement and tossing the bits in the chimney. But when Mary Poppins arrives, she is holding the children’s advert, taped together, much to Mr. Bank’s bafflement and confusion. Her arrival represents an experiment in how a more permissive household might operate.  

"Wish You Were Here": Imaginative Mobilities and Disembodied Intimacy in Postcards (Part Two)

 “Wish you were here”: Imaginative Mobilities and Disembodied Intimacy in Postcards 

by Sui Wang

Disembodied intimacy: a paper encounter 

Epistolary communication has always been concerned with performance and interpretation. The former is expressed through disembodiment from the physical bodies and the latter often resorts to semiotic imagining. “Within a discourse of disembodiment, there is a complex relation between the imagined body of epistolary discourse and the real ‘flesh and blood’ corporeality of the epistolary actors (Milne 7).” The conscious references to the embodiments, combined with the materiality of the epistolary medium, make up for the absence of physical bodies and convey a sense of intimacy, immediacy and presence. There is an old Chinese saying that goes “I could visualize you by seeing your handwriting (见字如面).” It is a common greeting at the beginning of, often times, a hand-written letter, meaning that this letter contains the writer’s spirits. Writing as physical labor requires a presence of body thus gives handwriting the corporeality that enables the readers to conjure the image of people. As a proxy of the sender, the postcard turns into an embodiment, a sign of physicality, and a performed identity with visual and textual cues. 

In the graphic novel Griffin and Sabine, London-based postcard designer Griffin enters into an epistolary romance with stamp illustrator Sabine, who lives on one of the South Pacific islands. Their relationship begins when Sabine sends him a greeting postcard expressing her affection for his artwork. They exchange their thoughts on family, school and art. They also exchange their work -- every card they send to each other is designed or handmade by themselves, so the mass-produced feature of postcard does not apply in their case. Sabine writes in one card with an eye and window: 

“I share your sight. When you draw and paint, I see what you’re doing while you do it. I know your work almost as well as I know my own.” 

Sabine convinces Griffin of the telepathic co-presence through their correspondences, in which she writes about how she knows about his work. Suffering from a lonely soul and a miserable past, Griffin develops an intimacy with this stranger. He replies, 

“I want to hear everything. Write in detail. Tell me all about yourself. I demand to know—please. ” 

Their next correspondence takes the form of a letter, which allows them longer lengths to expound on their life stories. In the letter, Griffin recalls how his parents died and he moved to his mother’s stepsister’s Vereker house. After working under her for three years, he went to art school. When he was about to graduate, he heard of Vereker’s death, which traumatizes him to this day. He adds that Sabine’s correspondence fills the void left by Vereker’s death. It is worth noting that Griffin sees Sabine’s postcard/letter as comfort, company, and an embodiment of her to “fill the void.” Similarly, Sabine develops a yearning for his cards. The postcard exchange facilitates a disembodied intimacy between them, which opens the door for a spiritual communion instead of the face-to-face physical connection. “I have always craved a closeness that I could not find here. Now I feel it with you. My kinsmen are responsive to me—but there is no one to reach my heart, and you who are so far away, have been closer to me than any man on the islands.” 

In this card, Sabine fantasizes bodily proximity with Griffin, while their disembodied encounter makes the proximity ambivalent. After Sabine denies his request for selfie, Griffin comes to a poignant epiphany: Sabine doesn’t exist -- it’s all his imagination. He thus abandons all hope and decides that “I mustn’t write again.” While the previous correspondences confirm their mutual affection, the disembodied nature of epistolary communication eventually endangers their romance and pushes Sabine to make the move. For ages, the fragility and illusiveness of disembodied intimacy have haunted the epistolary romance. In 84 Charing Cross Road, the protagonist, Hanff, had not got to visit the bookstore in person during their twenty-year long correspondence. When she finally visited the place after the owner Doel died, the bookstore was already closed. The same anxiety over authenticity troubles epistolary relationships of today, for instance, email romance and cyber dating. In contemporary cases, there seems to be a lck of any tangible artifact. No postcard, no paper, no handwriting. The material condition has fundamentally changed, hence the reworking of intimacy: people have invented new ways to build intimacy in digital world, which in turn is being tested and performed in a hybrid online-and-offline environment. 

Collectibles in the cabinet 

The postcard has a long shelf life and even longer after-shelf-life. The oldest ones can circulate for decades. Their possible last stop is the collector’s room. Postcard collection completes the cycle of private-public, moving it from the private domain to (quasi-)public exhibit. The life of a postcard as collectible is not completely separated from its life as gift, souvenir or epistolary vehicle. Many tourists send the postcard to themselves or friends for the sake of keeping their collection. A postcard from Chicago in 1908 reads: 

“Dear Elizabeth, 

I owed you a card of Mrs. Palmer’s house knowing you have a collection. It is brownstone however and not this red. We are all well. I suppose father will go to Lake Forest first and after to [Meutor?]. I have enjoyed being at home this winter very much. There is no news. Hope you are all well. 

Yours Nellie.” 

Nellie sent this card to Elizabeth not only for greeting but as a gift for her collection. When a postcard enters into a collection, its textual information and expressivity will be weakened, which shows a process of de-contextualization and de-privatization. As Naomi Schor writes on her postcard collection of Paris: 

“Postcards are organized in series, and their very seriality negates their individual mnemonic properties; what matters in the case of my postcard collection is not the contiguity between an individual card and the environment from which it was detached; rather it is the contiguity I restore between a single card and its immediate predecessor and follower in a series I am attempting to reconstitute, or the contiguity I create between cards linked by some common theme.” (255) 

The fragmentariness of the postcard takes on another layer of meaning. Instead of being an “in media res” of personal narratives, it is put back to a numbered published series. In this case, the “context collapse” does not seem to matter any longer. To be precise, the context is re-invented, or, returns to its barest starting point. In the postcard collection, the visual on the verso often takes the leading role, while the handwritten texts (if there is any) on the recto become the ornamentation. The sides flip again. The postcard regains its commodity value on the collecting market; this time, it is not only a cheap picture carrier, promo card, or a random souvenir that collects dust on the shelf, but a real collectible. Just as the collections of other kinds, the rarity denotes the value of collectibles and the trend keeps changing, responding to the zeitgeist. In this sense, the postcard collection reiterates the previous point on how the postcard serves as “a sign of time”. 

Nowadays, the collecting culture of the postcard is intricately linked with the pen pal community. On the forum of the international postcard association “Postcrossing”, many initiatives of postcard exchanges are for the purpose of collection. By collecting postcards of different places around the globe, the collectors meet new friends, exchange cultural traditions, and curate their typologies of places. “Postcrossing” even has a special section for trading, requests and offers where postcard fiends can specify their needs for cards (written/unwritten, stamped/unstamped, of specific places or themes) and complete their collection. Instead of adhering to the original published order, they can be very creative about their collections in terms of how the cards are picked and arranged. In the postcrossing community, postcard exchanges can fulfill the tasks of greeting, correspondence and trading in a one-time, single move. At the turn of the 20th century, the picture postcard offered a convenient and cheap means for long-distance communication; it brought together families, friends, lovers and strangers, albeit asynchronously. The distance and travelling time have romanticized the sender’s journey, as well as the receiver’s waiting. Its physical weight is light, while cultural weight is heavy. It functions as an epistolary vehicle, aesthetic object, souvenir and collectible. The enmeshed roles render it a cornucopia of meanings and enable it to travel between the private and public domains. Today’s email, mobile message and social media remediate different functions of the postcard, but none of them provides the imaginative mobilities, disembodied but materialized intimacy and curatorial serendipity that the postcard evokes. 

Works Cited 

Baldwin, Brooke. “On the Verso: Postcard Messages as a Key to Popular Prejudices.” 1988. The Journal of Popular Culture. 22: 15-28. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-3840.1988.2203_15.x 

Bantock, Nick. Griffin & Sabine: An Extraordinary Correspondence. , 1991. Print. 

Baranowska, Mafgorzata. “The mass‐produced postcard and the photography of emotions.” 1995. Visual Anthropology, 7:3, 171-189, DOI: 10.1080/08949468.1995.9966647 

Belk, Russ W. “Been There, Done That, Bought the Souvenirs: Of Journeys and Boundary Crossing.” 1997. Consumer Research: Postcards From the Edge. Edited by Stephen Brown and Darach Turley. London and New York: Routledge: 22–45. 

Benjamin, Walter. The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction. United States: Prism Key Press, 2010. Print. 

Cure, Monica. Picturing the Postcard. University of Minnesota Press. Kindle Edition. 

Dotterrer, Steven, and Galen Cranz. “The Picture Postcard: Its Development and Role in American Urbanization.” The Journal of American Culture 5.1 (1982): 44–50. Web. 

Farfan, Peny. “The Picture Postcard is a sign of the times’: Theatre Postcards and Modernism.” Theatre History Studies, vol. 32, 2012, p. 93-119. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/ths.2012.0018. 

Ferguson, Sandra. “A Murmur of Small Voices: On the Picture Postcard in Academic Research”. Archivaria, Vol. 60, Sept. 2006, pp. 167-84. https://archivaria.ca/index.php/archivaria/article/view/12520. 

Heinrich von Stephan, from an address to the 1865 Austro German Postal Conference, re-printed in Staff, Picture Postcard 44. 

Hoskins, Janet. “Postcards from the Edge of Empire: Images and Messages from French Indochina.” 2007. IIAS Newsletter: 44. 16 – 17. 

Jenkins, Henry. Comics and Stuff. NYU Press. 2020. 

Kelly, Ryan, and Daniel Gooch. “Understanding Participation and Opportunities for Design from an Online Postcard Sending Community.” Proceedings of the Designing Interactive Systems Conference on - DIS '12 (2012): n. pag. Web. 

Klinghammer, Waldemar. “Eine Reise nach Norwegen und Spitzbergen auf der ‘Auguste Victoria’.” Humoristische Schilderung aus der Kleinstâderperspektive. Rudolstadt: Verlag der Fürstlich priv. Hochdrückerei. 1903. 

Andriotis, Konstantinos, and Mišela Mavrič. “POSTCARD MOBILITY: going beyond image and text.” Annals of Tourism Research 40 (2013): 18–39. Web. 

Laverrenz, Viktor. In das Land der Fjorde: Reisebriefe aus Norwegen. Berlin: N.p. 1901. 

Lash, Scott, and Celia Lury. Global Culture Industry: The Mediation of Things. Cambridge: Polity, 2007. Print 

Marsh, Allison. “Greetings from the Factory Floor: Industrial Tourism and the Picture Postcard.” 2008. Curator: The Museum Journal. 51. 377-391. 10.1111/j.2151-6952.2008.tb00324.x. 

Milne, Esther. Letters, Postcards, Email (Routledge Research in Cultural and Media Studies) Taylor and Francis. Kindle Edition. 

McLuhan, M., & Lapham, L. H. Understanding media: The extensions of man. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, Inc. (Originally published 1964) 

Östman, Jan-ola. " The postcard as media". Text & Talk 24.3. 2004. pp.423-442. https://doi.org/10.1515/text.2004.017 Web. 

Prosser, Rosslyn. “The Postcard: The Fragment.” Life Writing. 2011. 8:2, 219-225, DOI: 10.1080/14484528.2011.559737 

Rogan, Bjarne. “An Entangled Object: The Picture Postcard as Souvenir and Collectible, Exchange and Ritual Communication.” 2005. Cultural Analysis. 4. 

Schor, Naomi. “Collecting Paris.” The Cultures of Collecting. 1994. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 252-74. 

Sheller, Mimi, and John Urry. “The New Mobilities Paradigm.” Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, vol. 38, no. 2, Feb. 2006, pp. 207–226, doi:10.1068/a37268. 

Trained as a media scholar and a journalist, Sui Wang’s work explore the media history of modern China and Japan with focuses on visual culture and sonic media. She is a second-year master student in East Asian studies at University of Southern California. Currently, she is working on her master thesis, which investigates how the listenership of overseas Chinese radio stations makes their diasporic identities. In her leisure time, she loves rewatching Chris Marker and writing short stories in Amazon reviews. You can read more of her other work at www.suiwang.org

"Wish You Were Here": Imaginative Mobilities and Disembodied Intimacy in Postcards (Part One)

The following paper was written by Sui Wang, who was a student in my PhD seminar on Media Theory and History last fall. I was impressed by the lyrical quality of her writing and the multiple perspectives she brought to bear on the postcard, a medium that has rarely received critical attention.

 “Wish you were here”: Imaginative Mobilities and Disembodied Intimacy in Postcards 

by Sui Wang

Abstract 

The postcard is a rich medium inscribed with entangled relationships. As a commodity, it circulates between publishers, buyers and collectors. As an emerging communication technology, the advent of the postcard caused many to reconsider previously held understandings of concepts such as intimacy and privacy at the turn of the 20th century. It mediates the distance with romantic intentions and facilitates virtual, asynchronous encounters. The handwritten messages on the recto grant glimpses into, despite its brevity, the relationship between the senders and receivers. On the verso, they have photographs or color fine prints that depict historical places. It is imperative that we understand the boom of picture postcards within the context of both the technological advancements of the era such as photography and color lithographs and the growth of the postal service. It is also important to contextualize and historicize it in the genealogy of epistolary communication, for instance, how it remediates some elements of letters and how it is remediated by the message apps of today. A re-examination of this technological history bespeaks a disappearance of tangible artifacts, by which correspondents conceive the virtual presence. This essay adopts a bifurcated method combining close readings of textual and visual messages on postcards, on the one hand, and investigations of its representational nature and materiality vis-à-vis the technological infrastructure, on the other hand. Drawing on postcards from the early 20th century and literary examples, I argue that picture postcards depict a central tenet of epistolary communication, namely, the process that the immaterial bodies of senders and receivers, as well as of places, are imagined through reading and writing. 

Introduction 

“I am a visual image and made on paper. I embody the intention of the sender and the pleasure of the receiver. I tell small stories of travel; the joy, the hardship, the movement, the ticketing, the comfort, the discomfort, the lost luggage, the lost time and the stories of cities with their own peculiar rhythm. I register the spectacle and the viewer, held in place by the click and aim of cameras, destinations with their promise of something other than the known and events that may take you out of your comfort zone, even speaking of love. I carry words: ‘I’ve been in Greece for only a few days (fell in love with it)’. My action is embodied in acts of communication, I reveal fragments of stories that are personal representations of places and people, and I accumulate in a range of storage containers and in displays. I become a collection, which resembles elements of narrative. I constitute a memory archive and can prevent forgetting. I can be read in different ways by the interested and the disinterested (219).

— “The Postcard: The Fragment,” Rosslyn Prosser 

Postal historians date the genesis of postcards to the late 19th century, while its precursor had appeared in various forms of card-with-messages: visiting card, pictorial notecard, decorated envelop and the carte-de-visite. Despite the slightly different social protocols developed around them, they share a similar format (pair of text and visual) and were invented to facilitate the epistolary communication. In the 1860s, Postal Director Heinrich von Stephan pioneered the postcard in Germany for the sake of efficacy and convenience, arguing that the present form of the letter did not show sufficient simplicity for “a large class of communications” hence needed to be updated. “It is not simple enough, because note-paper has to be selected and folded, envelopes obtained and closed, and stamps affixed. It is not brief enough, because, if a letter be written, convention necessitates something more than the bare communication.” The early backlash primarily centered around the loss of epistolary privacy and possible censorship. The public nature of it, which was counter to our assumption of epistolary communication, fostered people’s hesitance to embrace this new medium. When it was eventually implemented later, it was used mostly in realms of military correspondence and business communication, very rarely intended for love and family letters. Even so, The 1869 Post Office Regulation still stipulates that “the Post Department will not be responsible for the contents of the message… Nevertheless the post offices are instructed .… to exclude postcards likewise from transportation and delivery, if obscenities, libellous remarks or other punishable acts are found on the cards.” The field postcards during the Franco-Prussian War period were undecorated and designed with fixed forms that only conveyed basic information, such as name, place, and sign of life. 

In the late 19th century, postcards and the postal systems were introduced to most of Europe, the United States and Australia. The design of the postcard also went through different stages as it gradually transitioned into picture postcards of today. In the undivided-back phase, people could only write addresses on one side, and brief messages on the margin of the picture side. Some pictures were printed in a way to accommodate the messages. The contemporary postcard resumes “divided-back” format, where the torso of postcard is divided into two spaces, for correspondence and address respectively. The craze for postcards swept Europe and the United States at the turn of century, concurrent with the booming of mass tourism and international postal service. It is estimated that around 200 - 300 billion postcards were produced and sold during this time (Rogan 1). Postcard mania did not discriminate nationality, class, age or gender. The postcard as a visual medium was also conceived as a popular art. The postcard introduces a new paradigm of epistolary writing, which upholds the economy of words and democratic colloquialism. As Milne aptly puts it, “perhaps for the first time the postcard made visible the discursive practices of the general public. The texts of ‘the everyday’, the products of ‘ordinary’ writers, were now being circulated and read in a manner and on a scale that had not previously been possible (117).” Postcard senders squeeze their travel stories, homesickness and fleeting feelings of sceneries into several sentences within the limited space on the verso, expecting the addressees can at least capture some of it when they receive that stamped paper with smeared postmarks and scribbled handwritings. 

A postcard travels. It not only travels from place to place, but travels between private and public spheres as well. The postcard is originally addressed to a specific receiver as a personal correspondence, while it ends up circulating semi-publicly from the hands of publishers and postmen to receivers and collectors. It is the semi-public circulation of postcards that makes us reconfigure privacy and intimacy in the changing contexts and differing socio-technical relations. “Aesthetics and communication, ritual and symbol, technology and business, play and action, imagination and remembrance, desire and materiality, commodity as well as subjective experience (Rogan 3),” the postcard seems to integrate all these aspects into a snippet. 

Art historians tend to attach unbalanced emphasis to the pictorial side of postcards. Viewing it as “a sign of time”, scholars ascertain the history through the visual representations of places on postcards. The picture postcard acquires the documentary role of photography hence replicates its controversies. Photography eventually denies the wishful positivistic thinking of the transparency of this medium. The archive of picture postcards embodies visual coloniality, with the cards exhibiting the exotic and creating stereotypical topography. Earlier as an attempt to examine the “scientific” history, the interpretation of pictures/photographs gradually turns into revisionist revisits. While the picture side seems to provide a fascinating arena for studying visual history, this should not eclipse the other side, in which the public image is annotated with private information. In order to understand the entangled nature of postcards, I propose to read both sides in relation and examine the private-public negotiation at the nexus. This essay will adopt the Lury and Lash’s method of “following the object”, and tracing the cultural biographies of postcards to further investigate the multi-modalities and discursive practices it engenders. 

Imaginative mobilities: “wish you were here” 

Inextricably tied with tourism, picture postcards have always been a medium for travelers. At the beginning of the 20th century, urban tourism rose in popularity in the United States. City tours and factory tours became a trend among the leisure class. The developments of transportation networks, the travel industry and lodging facilities later lowered the cost of travel and promoted travel as a lifestyle for people of a wider range of classes. Industrial towns and factories embraced tourism as a means of advertising and published picture postcards for the branding effect. Marketed as souvenir cards, picture postcards were ubiquitous in tourist attractions. Writing postcards was equivalent to the present day ritual of taking pictures and the postcard a possible precursor to Instagram post. Travel accounts of the early 20th century demonstrate the fad of writing postcards among travelers: 

Figure 1. Easton's Point, Newport, Rhode Island, circa 1901-1907. Postmark date: May 18, 1907. From National Trust Library Historic Postcards Collection. 

“When I entered the hall with all the interesting Nordic wooden carvings, I found the room filled with people, who without exception sat writing. And what did they write? Picture postcards!! Oh, scourge of all scourges in this century. Like a pest you have fallen over us, and you pursue us into the most desolate valley. No one is safe from you. You are capable of spoiling the most beautiful voyage, the most picturesque landscape, the most serene fjord, the highest lookout point. . . . And what does the tourist do, when your call wakes him up from his silent contemplation of nature? . . . He digs deep into his pocket, brings out his purse and buys, more or less grudgingly, 2, 4, 6, 10, or 20 postcards, according to the number of friends and family. Instead of enjoying the marvelous view of the landscape . . . the tourist sits down and with an unusable pencil scribbles some unreadable lines (Laverrenz 60-61).” 

Rather than “silently contemplating the nature”, travelers turned their eyes away from the “marvelous view” and buried their heads in writing the postcards, whose pictures, though highly idealized, became the tangible substitutes for the real views hence the authentication of travel. The former benefits the receiver, while the latter matters more to the sender. Postcards create the need to share the views during travel and, probably in a remote sense, mitigates the solitude of travel. Like other forms of entertainment, tourism celebrates togetherness. Despite the fact that the materiality of postcards often authenticate travel, the overabundance (instead of flourishing) of postcards can jeopardize that authenticity. Scholars like Cure brought awareness to this issue, arguing that “…despite the inherent role of media in performing travel, over-mediation threatened to obscure the immediate experience (689).” Invented as a cheaper substitute (than photography), pictures on the postcards soon, took over the landscape itself. A Britain cruise tourist concluded that “tourists no longer needed to remember the views and places visited—it was sufficient to bring home the postcards (Rogan 10; Klinghammer 1903).” Compared to the physical evidence, the real experience of travel appears fleeting thus tenuous. Similar stories are happening in the era of social media. Our travels are increasingly mediated by Instagram posts and organized by the Instagrammable spots. The postcard cultivates the virtual travel culture, which by extension foresees the simulacrum and art reproductions. It also offers a productive site for “contesting valorizations of authenticity and imitation” and analyzing the duality of “immediacy” versus “hypermediacy” in Bolter and Grusin’s terms (Cure 1050). 

Further investigations into the authenticity in relation to postcards would require a close scrutiny of its modalities. When Walter Benjamin lamented on the loss of aura in his monograph, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” he argues that the reproduction of art work dissolves the “aura” of original work in removing its distance from viewers. In the case of postcards, the “distance” is maintained through the travel of postcards and the lengthy time it would take. It also preserves the “aura”, or the sense of being here/there and now/then, via the personalized textual messages attached to the images. 

Based on my research on postcards from the National Trust Library Historic Postcards Collection (circa 1900-1920), most of the texts are about their travel stories with regard to the place, lodging and weather. They also include messages like “thinking of you”, “wonder what you are doing”, “will be home soon” and the like. For instance, this postcard from Rhode Island in 1916 reads: “Dear Mal, 

Figure 2. Taku Glacier, Alaska, circa 1907-1914. Postmark date: July 17, 1919. From National Trust Library Historic Postcards Collection 

We arrived hear [sic] tonight but I couldn't get ashore until half past seven and I didn't moor [sic] as you would be at home but will be in again soon. 

From H [?] Northport, yacht Robin Maine.” 

This Mr/Ms H shared his travel anecdote and communicated a sign of his safety in roughly two sentences, plus, he also expressed the expectation of “being again soon”. Some postcards are even more concise. A postcard from Santa Catalina Island in 1906 reads: “This is where I spent Labor Day. Elmer.” The pithiness makes it hard to read much more into it. There is little for readers to infer from. Östman contends that “postcards have a particular rhetorical structure.” Besides the recurring elements like name, address and greeting, the rhetorical elements and the order of them vary from culture to culture. The elements may include “reference to the picture, weather and circumstances, foreign language, reference to the workplace, greeting and leave-taking (431).” A closer look into the texts on postcards reveals more semiotic and linguistic patterns. The texts on postcards are often of conversational language and exhibit dialogism markers, such as questions, responses, pragmatic particles and emotional markers (433). Figure 1 is a fine-print postcard with blue ocean waves picture. Rob was sharing this nice surf view with Agnes when visiting Rhode Island. The language is succinct, simple, even somewhat poetic. His greeting conveyed a sense of lightheartedness and intimacy, which naturally evoked speculations on his relationship with Agnes -- are they lovers? What does he mean by “Your moonlight view was a ‘beaut’”? This kind of inside joke is very typical of postcard writing. The messages are often coded in a language between the senders and the receivers, which effectively hinders the voyeuristic reading from the unintended readers like postmen or family members who happen to pick up the postcards. It could be also considered as a linguistic strategy to counter the loss of privacy, or to deal with the unavoidable semi-publicness of postcard. What makes sense to the receiver may not make sense to another person at all. This phenomenon echoes the “context collapse” on contemporary social media - the interpretations of information are highly hinged on the different social contexts people are making sense of under. “We live in a world where there is more and more information, and less and less meaning (McLuhan and Lapham 6).” The context that confines the meaning-making indeed carries the performances of social identities. On the contrary, the postcard is inherently fragmentary and anti-context. 

Dear Agnes: Have you any nice surf views. I should like very much to have some. Your moonlight view was a "beaut” Rob. my boat 

“This is the most wonderful sight. The picture gives one no idea of the size of the glacier. It is the most lovely blue. The crevasses are a deep blue and shades out to a very light blue. The boat ran very close to it and we were able to get some wonderful views. It was quite interesting. Could hear it cracking and saw some pieces fall off. Simply cannot write about all the lovely things, will tell you about it later.” 

In Figure 2, the sender wrote what they saw in eidetic details, for instance, “deep blue and shades out to a very light blue”; his words are brimming with excitement and sublime feelings towards nature, but simultaneously emphasizing the disparity between the represented view and the real view: “the picture gives one no idea of the size and the actual color of the glacier.” They went on to add sonic information that the image simply cannot include, i.e. the cracking sounds of ice. Lastly, the sender, again, questioned the expressive capacity of the postcard and concluded with “will tell you about it later.” This postcard perfectly demonstrates the trope of “wish you were here” that encourages the receiver to imagine a shared presence through reading the visual-textual messages it contains. However, it also indicates that the shared presence should only be imagined in a mediated fashion. The way to bridge the gap between the image and the glacier, as the sender stated, is physically being together and “tell you all about it.” A postcard like this thus retains the aura and romanticizes the distance between them. For the receiver, it kindles the hope for their next meeting and makes the time before it bittersweet. According to Milne, the “absence” here is creative; “it opens a discursive space in which desires and subjectivities that might not otherwise be articulated can be explored. (5)” 

Andriotis and Mavric examined the postcard under the Urry’s “the New Mobilities Paradigm (NMP in short)”, namely “corporeal, imaginative, communicative, virtual and the mobility of objects, and systems supporting them, which in turn produce and sustain social lives.” In light of the communicative and visual properties, they view postcards as “representing virtual mobility of the time (19).” I argue that the postcard produces “imaginative mobilities” for the viewers. According to NMP, “imaginative mobility is triggered by images (and texts) circulating through print and visual media.” Through reading the postcards, the addressees not only imagine a shared presence, but go on imaginative travels to afar places. For many of them, the postcard is likely the only way to encounter faraway places. The aura, embodied in the distance between senders and receivers, between real views and represented views, enhances the imaginative mobilities provided for virtual travelers. What is more important are the personal touches to the imaginative mobilities embedded in the postcard messages. The strange places are brought by familiar people. The personal/impersonal duality keeps paralleling the private/public binary among the discussions of postcards. 

MORE TO COME

Trained as a media scholar and a journalist, Sui Wang’s work explore the media history of modern China and Japan with focuses on visual culture and sonic media. She is a second-year master student in East Asian studies at University of Southern California. Currently, she is working on her master thesis, which investigates how the listenership of overseas Chinese radio stations makes their diasporic identities. In her leisure time, she loves rewatching Chris Marker and writing short stories in Amazon reviews. You can read more of her other work at www.suiwang.org

Bridging Media Psychology and History: An Interview with Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay (Part Three)

You distinguish here between broadcast and cable television. Are they distinctive media? How do their effects differ? 

 Similar to magnetic tape, we often don't think about network and cable as different, but this evolution of the technology was essential to our relationship with television content. When the difference between network and cable television is discussed in media studies, it is largely about differences in industry and policy – targeting different groups, bypassing fin-syn laws, pay content, and so on – but they are absolutely different technologies. When I refer to network television, we are talking about audiovisual content delivered through radio waves. Alternatively, cable television is a hardwired cable into your home, eliminating the problems of radio waves, including the need for an antenna, the potential for signal disruption because of weather or other obstructions. So suddenly we had guaranteedaudiovisual content. The increased spectrum also allowed service providers greater control to limit access to paying customers, as well as more channels for targeted programming. These changes are made possible by sending messages over a literal wired cable. 

 To tie back to magnetic tape, I don't think that magnetic tape receives the same attention as other technologies because magnetic tape didn't necessarily beget its own content and its own unique messaging; instead, it was a new way for users to engage with pre-existing messages. There is some work on direct-to-video content and exercise tapes because that is the new content that magnetic tape made possible, but this lack of attention demonstrates our obsession with content over the technology. In the case of over-the-air broadcast – what I call network television for lack of a better term – we think of cable as simply a new way to access media content with which we were already familiar, so we don’t think of it as a new technology. If the technology does not manifest new content, even if it gives us an opportunity to engage differently with old content or pre-existing content, then it doesn't get the same level of attention.

 By setting the boundaries of your account within the 20th century, you largely dodge the challenges of writing about social media, focusing your account of digital technology around computer games and Dialup ISP.  How would Twitter or Facebook fit within the framework you offer here?

 The choice to end the book before our current manifestation of social media serves several purposes. Most importantly it focuses the book on technologies to which no longer pay research attention. We stopped researching the psychological effects of radio when television came along, and research into the effects of television became passe with the rise of video games and social media. Considering this, one of my major arguments is that our relationships with 20th century media inform our relationships with 21st century media, including social media. So instead of talking about social media like Facebook and Twitter as its own chapter, I talk about our relationship with these platforms as the outcome of our relationships with prior platforms. The things that we attribute to the affordances of social media – the expectation of finding something that is personally relevant regardless of your personal preferences, the expectation of one’s voice being heard, the ability to connect with communities independent of space and time – I argue were somewhat available with earlier technology and therefore those uses were seeded before social media came along. 

 However, if we think about social media as its own unique technology, not as simply the accelerated opportunity to satisfy psychosocial needs that were triggered by earlier media, the specific affordances of social media must be clear. Three communication opportunities that are very unique to social media are…

1.    Mass distribution of user-generated content:In my opinion, this is the ultimate affordance of social media. Whereas other media like magnetic tape and eventually CDs allowed people to create content and distribute it, this content had to be copied and distributed through real space, limiting its reach. With social media, anyone can create anything, post it, and make it widely available. This affordance triggered a rise in influencer culture, where people can become popular overnight for just being themselves. A student once said that the new dream is to have your content “blow up;” the right person sees it, shares it, and suddenly you can make a living doing you. 

2.    Talking back to power and the invisible gatekeeper: Social media as a technology allows anyone to post anything on content by anyone else – barring changes in settings obviously. By eliminating the gatekeeper, we see how users will push back on institutions and individuals in power. I adore reading the replies on posts from people like Donald Trump, Taylor Swift, or Pope Francis just to see how random people use this space to stan, shade, and troll. It feels like every letter to the editor is published, but we also know that the algorithm is the new gatekeeper, and we are more likely to see the comments that the platform thinks will keep us engaged.  

3.    Infinite scrolling:In the end, infinite scrolling isn’t even an inherent part of social media, but it is a seemingly inseparable feature. What social media have offered from a technological perspective is literally endless content. TV shows and movies eventually run credits. Songs end. Mario saves the Princess. Content via dialup ISPs was close to infinite, but they weren’t designed to push you into more content, barring web rings. But Facebook and Twitter are designed to never end, to create a space where the next satisfying piece of content is just on the next page. This is the ultimate manifestation of the negative promise of channel surfing. But now, we don’t even have to change the channel, we just keep scrolling and the next channel is pushed to us.

 I started a private Instagram page for my son where I share one picture of him a day with friends and family. The experience of starting a new profile has been enlightening; I do not consider what I should and should not post with respect to my preexisting online persona, and instead simply share joyous pictures of a toddler. In addition, because he only follows about 100 people, we regularly get to the end of the feed. Instagram notifies you when you have gotten to the end of your new posts and proceeds to provide suggested posts, which is usually animal posts and zoo profiles in his case, so that’s cool. 

 As we think about what we expect from social media, its potential, promise, and practice. The potential is to engage with people around the world, the promise has been one of increased human connections, but the practice has been of never turning it off and literally feeding you posts that continue to draw you in. So, to come to the end of the internet, so to speak, is an epiphany. It shows you what the limits of the technology are when you're actively told that you shouldn't see the limits as well.

You describe yourself as a “fierce advocate for media literacy.” How are you defining “media literacy” here? As a mother, what kinds of educational experiences do you hope your children will receive to help guide their relationship to media?

When I talk about media literacy, in this case, as it relates to technology, is literally to look at the process by which messages get to us. 

 In 2017 for NAMLE’s Media Literacy Week, I conducted a series of interviewswith my colleagues at Newhouse to ask them how they define media literacy and how that operates in their classroom. And then created a series of images. I still use my own quote from that series for my definition of media literacy. Media literacy is the ability to see things that you are actively encouraged not to see.

This is the driving force of my teaching philosophy, to help students see what they're not supposed to see. And with respect to communication technologies, we are not supposed to see the medium itself. With any good media content, the medium should fall away – we get lost in books, we forget that we are in the theater, we return to memories through music – in short, the suspension of disbelief is to be able to ignore the medium and focus on the message. This is the sense of presence. 

 From a technological perspective, media industry does not make money by encouraging people to think deeply about the technology; money comes from making the technology invisible. When we talk about media literacy as it relates to technology, we're talking about being able to see howwe engage with something, and distinguish the potential of the technology (i.e., what canthe technology do) from the promises (i.e., how are we encouraged to use the technology by designers and stakeholders) and the practice (i.e., how do we actually come to use the technology). It is essential to understand that how we use a technology does not depend only on the technology’s capabilities; that there are a lot of people with a lot of interests – economic and social – in how technology is used and seeing this distinction is a form of media literacy. 

 When we talk about media literacy, we often talk about media industry and content framing. I think we really need to ask ourselves about the technology and this is where this whole book emerged from as it pertains to the class that I was teaching, both at USC and at Syracuse, the psychology of interactive media, where I ask students to think differently about the technology that they're accustomed to. We start with the printed word. Why do you read? How do you read? What is your relationship with the written word? What is your relationship with a book? How is an audiobook different from the tangible book? Why do you read magazines? Newspapers? Even though these are the same format – printed words and images – they are different technologies, and we expect different things and engage with them differently. But why? And to what effect?

 I think that this is particularly relevant to another question you asked: Over the past year, few of us have had a chance to watch theatrical films in public exhibition. This allows us to think through what is gained or lost from our encounters with the big screen. Did we learn anything important about cinema as a medium as a consequence of this social experiment?

 We know why we go to the movies – it is literally promised to us every year during awards season through the Oscars host opening monologue or some other industry self-aggrandizing montage. But the experience of theatrical filmis different from that of simply watching feature-length films (i.e., a story that begins and ends in 90-240m). I talk about theatrical film as a unique medium because we willingly give over our consciousness to the filmmaker…

 The venue distinguishes theatrical film from other audiovisual media, because the audience’s attention, experiences, and subsequently emotions are controlled by the medium. Users can certainly engage with moving pictures on television, backyard projections, and cell phones, but these venues do not control the total corporeal experience, and differences in display (e.g., screen size, audio quality) results in different experiences. Theatrical venues, including ornate palace-styled theaters and multiplexes, amplify the sensory experience of film by situating the user in a darkened theater that insulates them from outside noise and other distractions, resulting in consistent experiences across users regardless of time, geographical location, or user differences. (p. 22)

Now that we are watching film in our homes on our televisions, laptops, and even mobile devices, there is no consistency of corporeal experience. The film is consistent, but the venue is infinitely different between users. Films at home are more like books – the content is the same, albeit richer due to audio and visual information, but the experience of the film differs based on the user’s setup. Unfortunately, with a toddler, I haven’t had the chance to watch many movies even in quarantine, so I haven’t been able to really test this theory by talking to others about films that are being released on streaming platforms[1]. But I would assume that the interpretation of the film and one’s overall assessment of its quality may come from a combination of the film itself, the emotions that the user brings to the film, and the format in which the user watches it, the latter of which has generally not been a significant consideration pre-COVID. I hope the Academy offers a new award: Best Small Screen Film… 

As for how my child changes how I think about all of these things. It is unbelievably fascinating to know all of these things in theory, to have done this research for decades, to have written this book, and then to watch him live and experience the things. Sometimes its research in action, sometimes it’s something that has never crossed my mind. For example, he generally does not like video. Admittedly, we kept him away from screens for the first 2 years as per the recommendations of the American Psychological Association, but now he is disinterested in non-interactive video. He plays Khan Academy Kids and other educational video games, but he really doesn’t like anything that he can’t control. Interestingly, he loves books and magazines because he can control the progression of the story and he can move backward and forward at his discretion, which is largely counter to what I would have suspected given that those formats are less rich, less immersive, but he doesn’t seem interested in being immersed, especially if he is not in control. 

 We've been trying to introduce videos into his media diet, but it’s tough and it's really interesting to watch like my other friends with similar aged babies take to videos so easily because they've been watching for so long. Or they have older siblings who watch, and you can't really keep away your younger one when the older sibling is watching content. It’s just really remarkable to see how he's evolving with different media differently. He has a wonderful control over Alexa, getting the speaker to play his favorite songs on repeat. He even improved his pronunciation to better get what he wants. 

 I am technically an expert on media and psychology, and very knowledgeable about trends in development with respect to both of these disciplines, but every child is different, and I appreciate more every day how every one of us is an outlier. And I think that's probably where I would leave this. 

 The goal of a media psychography is to think about one's own biography through the media technologies, through the communication environment in which we have been immersed. So, to understand our own psychology, it is essential for each of us to understand the way in which we communicate be that language or culture or technology. I would hope that to foster media literacy in all of my readers, my students, your readers, your students, is to ask them to think differently about the communication environmentin which they live. 

[1]Although I have big plans to watch The Matrix 4and Bill and Ted 3later this semester for supplemental episodes of my podcast on Keanu Reeves with Bob Thompson. Shameless Pitch: criticalandcurious.com/s2

Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay is an Associate Professor of Communications at the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University. She holds BS degrees in Brain and Cognitive Science and Comparative Media Studies from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, an MA degree from the School of Cinematic Arts and a PhD in Social Psychology from University of Southern California. Charisse's work focuses on how media affects the way we think about others and our perceptions of ourselves. At Newhouse, she teaches courses on media theory, media psychology, and diversity. In her most recent book, 20th Century Media and the American Psyche, she investigates changes to the communication environment over the past 150 years and how these rapid yet pervasive shifts have affected our psychology. A committed teacher, L’Pree has spent the past 20 years encouraging others to think differently about their relationship with all forms of media and across disciplines. You can read more of her work at charisselpree.me or follow her @charisselpree.

Bridging Media Psychology and History: An Interview with Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay (Part Two)

How did Americans’ relationship to mass media first take shape? What changed from the previous ways people received and processed information?

This is a really interesting question and I'm not certain that I have the answer, even though the book is entitled 20th Century Media and the American Psyche. I begin my analyses by unpacking how communication technologies affect the way humans think about themselves and others, and throughout my analysis I acknowledge that I’m writing from an American perspective: I focus on the technologies that were popular in the United States, acknowledge that the policies and practices of mass media technology in the United States are different from other countries, and draw on the individualism that is valorized in American culture – although it is not explicitly mentioned (shame on me!). 

In general, I think that the human relationship to mass media is as old as human communication itself. We generally don’t communicate to mass audiences with drum signals (i.e., broadcast without storage) anymore, but we feel something when we see them deployed in a movie like Mad Max: Fury Road (2015), just like we feel a relationship to hieroglyphs because we are aware of the source’s intention to communicate. So, I think that our relationship with mass media, American or otherwise, comes from the fundamental psychosocial need to connect with others. Therefore, the American relationship with mass media existed long before this thing we call America existed, including pre-Columbian North America and post-colonist United States.

 However, I think that Jared Diamond offers an interesting perspective on the history of the American relationship with communication technologies – and subsequently mass media – in his book, Guns, Germs, and Steel (1997). The written communications of the European colonists allowed for more detailed and effective strategies across space and time, putting Indigenous Americans at a marked disadvantage. Although not unique to the United States, the use of communications as a soft weapon continued long after the colonies were established: for the better part of mediated human history, only a handful of people have had access to creating and distributing messages, often white (acknowledging the evolution of whiteness as afforded to different ethnic groups over time), male, and wealthy; enslaved Africans and African Americans were not allowed to read, and therefore not given the opportunity to participate in many components of this thing we call America; and every few years, some elected official proposes legislation to make English the official language of the United States, effectively eliminating any requirement to translate documents and systematically disadvantaging non-English speakers. 

Considering this history – and I'm theorizing in real time here – I think that the American relationship with mass media took shape at colonization and has been one wherein the masses have been hustling for media access, including the ability to create, distribute, consume, and ultimately control mass messages. The American Dream, or getting one’s own piece of the pie, includes mediated representation, which has been systematically withheld from most people for centuries. When applied to the claims that I make in the book, this perspective fleshes the overall theory that the evolving American relationship with mass media replicates interpersonal relationships: coming from a default of solitude (i.e., non-representation and singlehood) we are seeking emotional satisfaction via media and IRL. 

I don’t know if that answers your question, but that was a fun detour. Thank you!! 

Your introduction suggests that the “relational” approach you propose here grows out of your own experiences growing up in a highly mediated culture. What kinds of epiphanies did you have as you navigated the place of media in your life?

I have so much to say on this one, but just in the interest of connecting this question to the last question, here is a paragraph from the conclusion that I think also serves as a nice bridge regarding relational experiences vs. technological determinism. 

Much like interpersonal relationships, each past relationship informs (or should inform) what we want and need from future relationships. This is not the same as technological determinism; the technology has not determined our culture or our psyche. Rather, our psyches have determined the practices of technology, which then became normalized into our culture. We share selfies online for the same reasons our ancestors made cave paintings—to affirm our existence. We also reflexively check our social media for the same reason we feel a sense of awe when they looked at these cave paintings—connecting with humans is inherently and viscerally satisfying. (p. 180)

Back to your question and again, thank you so much for asking it because I feel like the book was an exercise in unpacking epiphanies and I hope that those reading the book also have the joy of similar epiphanies as they begin to think about their media uses differently. 

The whole book begins with probably the most impactful epiphany that has since led me down this path of scholarship in media psychology…

In 2000, I had an epiphany while watching late-night infomercials: With enough money, anyone can reach into your home at any hour and convince you to buy or believe something that you had never considered before. In that moment, through this revelation, my life was forever changed. (p. 1)

 This intersectional moment of media technology, content, and industry and how these three branches of media come together to impact how I think and what I do was mind boggling to me at the time. 

 Media technologies are so pervasive, it's like being a fish in water. And we all have those moments when we suddenly realize, “Oh my goodness! I'm in water!” Most importantly, it was the recognition that through the technology, I invited these messages into my home. I willingly and eagerly sat in front of this screen engage with the messages for hours on end, without recognizing that media technology was a choice. People buy televisions as a default, again detaching themselves from their own agency. That’s amazing.

In the end, I think that we generally fail to see how we are in a relationship with the media technology and that in itself is an epiphany. Habitual media use, taking pictures to make memories, the default expectation that our media will be able to deliver what we want when we want. Each of these behaviors parallels the interactions with have with partners, and that in itself was an epiphany. That my cameras – from point-and-shootsto my iPhone – have made more memories than some people in my life; that I depend on film, music, radio, and television to make me feel better when I’m sad, to make me laugh, to make me see the world differently more so than some of my professors or partners. This in itself is an epiphany. 

Everybody has a favorite media. Everyone has said at some point or another… “I love X…” I love television. I love video games. I love music. I love movies. I love the internet. We say this but we do not closely analyze whywe love these technologies. What do they allow us to do? And I think that opportunity for a close investigation of one's own relationship with media technologies invites epiphanies. 

One of the more surprising media included in the book is magnetic tape, which has rarely been discussed in works on mass media. Why did you decide to include it here? Why is it important to consider as you map the relationship between 20th century media and the American psyche?

I think magnetic tape is beyond important. And frankly, the fact that it has not been included in our common media history discourse is a major gap in the evolution of our relationship with media. There is work on magnetic tape and how it affords like avant-garde content, music videos, journalism, hip hop via pause tape production, and all of those things. But I haven't seen a real psychological analysis of our ability to control the ether. And as we talk about on-demand media today, magnetic tape[1]is our first instance of on-demand media as we know it. I can capture what I want when I want, especially from content that originally demanded synchronized behaviors as described in the second section related to radio and television. 

Magnetic tape allowed us to control and own broadcast content, to manipulate the ether. I remember the feeling of unchecked power that came from being able to set my VCR, or even just hit record when something was happening, to make it mine instantly. It offered a sense of agency that we have now come to take for granted in a digital space. But the opportunity to go to the video rental store and pick whatever movie you wanted, or record your favorite show if you weren't going to be home, or edit a mix tape like a radio producer to share with your friends. All of these opportunities have become normalized with on-demand media, but this behavior and expectation was launched with magnetic tape. 

And magnetic tape was so durable. Unlike records, or CDs and DVDs, or even digital files that can be deleted in an instant, VHS tapes and cassette seemed indestructible – as long as you didn’t leave them in a closed car in the summer – you could throw them around your car, in a box if you were moving, or just straight into your backpack without the proper case. I love this image from Jason Kohlbrenner featured in the chapter on magnetic tape. 

FIGURE 7.1 Tapes Haiku (2009)

Cassette Tapes are widely assumed to be one of the lowest quality storage devices of the 20th century, but they offered durability and portability, something that vinyl, CDs, and even MP3s couldn’t match. Literal piles of tapes, both in cases and naked, were common and inevitably held a treasure trove of content. (p. 130) 

I also think that the durability of magnetic tape gave us a false sense of security with respect to ownership in the digital environment. We like to think we own things, especially if we have paid for them, but the minute it has been uploaded to the cloud, it is made available to be deleted by some larger corporation. I recall having the Michael Jackson 20th Anniversary Edition of Bad that I uploaded to my iTunes. I then lost the CD. iTunes then decided that my file was not a legitimate copy and deleted it. Now I don’t have that album anymore. When you upload something to YouTube and YouTube decides that you don’t have the rights to it, your video can be deleted, and the thing that you thought you owned is gone, demonstrating that we don’t really have ownership over our media content, but since the ear of magnetic tape, we feel like we do…

 I think that records are probably the first instance of on-demand media. I could pull out a song and listen to it on a whim and play it as often as I liked. I could even start and stop wherever I liked by simply inspecting the grooves.

Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay is an Associate Professor of Communications at the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University. She holds BS degrees in Brain and Cognitive Science and Comparative Media Studies from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, an MA degree from the School of Cinematic Arts and a PhD in Social Psychology from University of Southern California. Charisse's work focuses on how media affects the way we think about others and our perceptions of ourselves. At Newhouse, she teaches courses on media theory, media psychology, and diversity. In her most recent book, 20th Century Media and the American Psyche, she investigates changes to the communication environment over the past 150 years and how these rapid yet pervasive shifts have affected our psychology. A committed teacher, L’Pree has spent the past 20 years encouraging others to think differently about their relationship with all forms of media and across disciplines. You can read more of her work at charisselpree.me or follow her @charisselpree.

Bridging Media Psychology and History: An Interview with Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay (Part One)

This week, I am showcasing a new book, 20th Century Media and the American Psyche: A Strange Love, a magisterial work by a first-time author, Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay, which explores the intersection between American media history and media psychology.

Charisse has been talking about writing such book going back to when I knew her as an undergraduate student living in Senior Haus, the MIT dorm where my wide and I were housemasters for thirteen years. (The stories I could tell!) I was lucky to be able to connect with her again when I came to USC and served on her dissertation committee. And I was one of the people who got to read this book in manuscript form and give it my public endorsement:

“20th Century Media and the American Psyche is an ideal textbook for educators who want to help their students engage with the impact of more than a century of changing media on the ways we think, remember the past, interact with others, and construct our identities. The perspectives here are both productive and generative, pushing aside old assumptions and pushing us to ask new questions. And the writing is engaging, personal, and witty, all of the things most textbooks are not. The interdisciplinary fusion of media psychology and media history is especially welcomed as a way to get students thinking critically about what has changed and what has remained as a consequence of earlier media ‘revolutions.’"

I am proud as Hell for her and what she has accomplished with this ambitious project.

Across this interview, I ask her about some of the core principles which organize this project, allow her to address the issue of technological determinism, and explore her long-standing commitment to media literacy education.

You organized your book around media that enable “sharing experiences,” “synchronizing experiences,” and “affecting experiences.” Explain this distinction.

I cluster the technologies of the long 20th century (i.e., about 1860-2000) according to the capabilities that they afforded that were not available with earlier media in order to assess how the communication environment changed during this time. 

Prior to the 20th century, the primary means of exchanging messages across space and time was the written word. The written word is powerful and can deeply impact mass audiences but the mass audience being able to experience consistent and realistic (moving) images and sound – thereby sharing detailed sensory experiences – is a massive shift, an unprecedented one compared to the centuries of human communication that came before it. This fosters a sense of intimacy, or feelings of closeness between individuals in a way that was unavailable prior to the advent of photographic film and recorded sound

Similarly, being able to share visceral sensory experiences at the same time with the advent of radio and television – that is synchronizing experiences – is a blink in human communication history (i.e., widely available for less than 100 years) and yet it has become the default for mass communication experiences since. This regularity, or the quality of being stable and predictable through habitual interaction, allowed us to develop shared schedules as a nation and engage in synchronized activities across space that had previously only been salient to those in the same community, resulting in a national sense of community that is fostered through shared behaviors in shared time, not just shared messages or content.

 Finally, the opportunity to affect or manipulate mass media messages was not widely available prior magnetic tape, video gaming, and dialup service provider, but now we regularly ask ourselves, could we survive without the internet? The question seems absurd when you consider that human society survived without real time active information access for literally millennia. Reciprocity—as an aspect of any successful relationship—means that both parties acknowledge and engage with each other. Reciprocal media are communication technologies that reciprocate, or respond to, the actions of users with corresponding actions (vs. interactive media).  In 25 years, the internet has become a psychological necessity on par with food, water, and shelter. That’s beyond amazing and worthy of consideration. 

 The purpose of the book to address how our communication environment has changed with the rapid evolution of 20th century media and how this change in the communication environment has subsequently affected our expectations of ourselves, others, and future media. Each of these clusters represents a massive shift in how we communicate, affording things that were not possible previously. By clustering them, my hope is for readers to see how rapidly our communication environment has changed and even more shockingly, how we take these affordances for granted even though they have happened in less than a century. 

Your book brings together two approaches -- one psychological, the other historical. What do you see as the relationship between the two? 

I regularly identify as an interdisciplinary scholar because the term indicates that my work exists at the intersection of two different disciplines, but to be honest, I have never felt that I was bridging disciplines, I was just trying to use the best tools available to answer the questions that I was interested in. However, academia is so siloed that the idea that connecting theories across disciplines is an anomaly instead of resourceful.

Silos are often false constructions that allow us to operate and label ourselves within a given space, but also prevent us from seeing how our work connects. In this case, over time, I think psychology is deeply rooted in history, even though psychologists like to think of themselves as independent of time, that these are constructs that humans will have exhibited arguably forever. But the psychological arguments are missing the question: how does the communication environment change? 

For example, many psychological studies rely on manipulating text; changing a name, changing the words use in framing an argument, changing what information is presented to the subject at different points in the text. However, this research never addresses how these psychological processes operated before the written word and widespread literacy. 

 That’s what's so essential to the historiography of psychology; we need to understand that our psychology is dependent on the world in which we were raised, and our world has evolved more rapidly over the past 150 years than say the 150 years before that (1700-1850) or as is commonly referred to in our discipline, since the advent of the printing press in the west in the 15th century (China had moveable type printing 400 years prior). 

 Much of this is rooted in my experiences moving between cultures as a child. I spent summers in Guyana, moving annually between the suburbs of New York City to a farm in what was commonly referred to as the third world… Clearly that’s a problematic term, but so is developing, or banana republic, or any of the other terms that we use to refer formerly colonized countries that have spent years trying to attain some sense of agency and self-determination on the other side of colonization. 

 I talk about the experience of having cable and video games with my grandfather in Guyana and not having those experiences in my American home, but at the same time, I also experienced what it meant to have rolling blackouts, no air condition, no indoor plumbing, and shoddy television when I stayed with other family and friends. This marked disparity in technology impacted how I think about and how I engage with the world. It affected my psychology. But the trends in psychology, specifically that much of the fundamental research is conducted on WEIRD participants (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic; Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010) is a painful blind spot that many psychologists are only beginning to address.

 As a post doc, I worked under Cheryl Grills, who focuses on Afro centric psychological phenomena. She spends a big chunk of the year on the continent, researching the cognitive processes of traditional African healing using psychological methodologies and approaches, but here in the west, we talk about that body of work using terms like African philosophy, spirituality, religion. We don’t think about it as a form of psychology and we don’t think psychology as part of their unique communication environment. 

 So back to your question about what the connection between history and psychology is. History is the story we tell ourselves about the past. But when we start to tell that story of the past, we see how we as humans have evolved over time. And by failing to correlate how we, our culture, our society, and again, our communication environment has evolved over time, then we fail to see how our psychology would arguably evolve over time as well. 

 As you are describing widespread consequences of introducing new media into the culture, how do you avoid the problem of technological determinism?

 Thank you for asking this question because this is a common assumption of my work. Long story short, I'm basically arguing the exact opposite of technological determinism. Technological determinism is the idea that technology determines society and is one of the first arguments that is debunked in the study of media; instead, I’m arguing that psychology determines technology use and our habitual use then in turn affects our psychology. We need to have an interdependent understanding of media because we have an interdependent relationship with the communication environment. Our psychology determines the communication environment and in turn the communication environment determines our psychology.

FIGURE 0.4 Psychology and the Communication Environment

How we communicate affects our psychology, and our psychology affects how we communicate. Communication technologies, including everything from language and music to smoke signals and radio, enable novel strategies for communication. As these technologies become normal, so do their associated strategies, thus impacting culture, society, and individual expectations for communicating. These expectations then impact the development and adoption of new technologies. (p. 9)

The phenomenon of early memories is particularly relevant here. The research in development psych reveals that infants actually form memories earlier than we are able to vocalize them. In the 1960s, Rovee-Collier revealed that 2-3 month-old infants “remembered” which leg would activate a mobile hanging over their crib. 

You can experience this when you have a visceral reaction to a smell, but you cannot recall where or when you first experienced it. Instead, psychologists argue that being able to communicate and encoding the memory into language is what allows us to then recall it later in life, and language largely doesn’t emerge until around 12 months. Coming back to your last question, the ability to communicate and how we communicate is essential to our psychology. Communication technologies have drastically expanded our opportunities for communication; therefore, they have drastically expanded our psychological abilities.

 Technology is affording new changes in the communication environment which then allow us to evolve. The criticism of technological determinism, or the idea that technology determines society, often ignores this major third variable: that technology changes the communication environment. We hear – and have heard for the past 25 years – that the internet and social media are going to change the world. And they have. But these technologies are social catalysts. Drawing from the definition in chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a [social] reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change; the internet and social media have afforded a communication environment that allows social changes to occur at a faster rate, much like the printing press, the written word, smoke signals, and even language itself.

 I will also take this opportunity to argue that the rhetorical use of the technological determinism is a shorthand critique that is used in spaces where technology develops quickly. I have not heard the term technological determinism applied to the advent of the written language or the printing press. However, we can all argue that the advent of the written language dramatically changed our society. 

I also think that our knee-jerk response to any whiff of technological determinism is an outcome of the popular discourse regarding media – we constantly hear arguments about the effects of media on society; the minute you tell someone what you do, their first question is “What do you think is the effect of MTV, rap music, video games, Facebook, [insert newest media here]?” Because the argument is so lazy and pervasive, we – as media scholars – have to push back on it every single time. I had a very unpleasant interaction at a history conference in 2017 when I was presenting some of my arguments on cable television and magnetic tape to discuss the environment of the 1990s. The respondent for my panel said, “I guess psychologists don’t have a problem with technological determinism,” then refused to allow me to respond. It was so sarcastic, dismissive, and righteous that it really set me down the path of having to defend my work against this particular criticism. 

I think that we need to address the connections between technology and society. And it is clearly not as simple as technology-determines-society. But technology changes the environment which we live. And that changes our society and our psychology.

Charisse L’Pree Corsbie-Massay is an Associate Professor of Communications at the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University. She holds BS degrees in Brain and Cognitive Science and Comparative Media Studies from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, an MA degree from the School of Cinematic Arts and a PhD in Social Psychology from University of Southern California. Charisse's work focuses on how media affects the way we think about others and our perceptions of ourselves. At Newhouse, she teaches courses on media theory, media psychology, and diversity. In her most recent book, 20th Century Media and the American Psyche, she investigates changes to the communication environment over the past 150 years and how these rapid yet pervasive shifts have affected our psychology. A committed teacher, L’Pree has spent the past 20 years encouraging others to think differently about their relationship with all forms of media and across disciplines. You can read more of her work at charisselpree.me or follow her @charisselpree.

Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture (Fifteen Plus Years Later) (Part Four)

In this final installment of our series, Henry Jenkins and Tessa Jolls offer some final reflections on Confronting the Challenge of a Participatory Culturein the current context.

 Tessa Jolls: How did you react when you re-read the report?

Henry Jenkins: There are certain things I wrote that when I reread I don't remember hardly anything. This whitepaper, I reread and remembered almost every word of it. There were things that surprised me, but the conversations of that era were still so vivid in my memory. I can remember the thinking that went behind this paragraph and that paragraph, as we went to that writing process. 

Tessa Jolls: Where do you see things going in terms of participatory culture? Certainly, we're at a moment right now, and you had mentioned earlier that some of the things that you had predicted, are all happening right now. It's interesting that it's taken that long to catch up, but nevertheless, it's happening. How do you see that? How do you see the moment today and where it’s going to?

Henry Jenkins: In the wake of COVID-19, we’ve seen the widespread embrace of networked technologies and particularly Zoom in response to the social isolation we're all feeling. Ironically, we were attacked as advocates of digital media for a long time because digital media was isolating us from going out into the world and engaging with the people around us.  Now, we're trapped in our apartments, have no way of going out or engaging with the world, we're isolated from the people around us. I haven't seen the guy in the apartment next to mine since this thing began but we're communicating via Zoom and email on an ongoing basis. Schools have had to revert overnight to online teaching. I'm teaching online exclusively right now. We're hearing stories of kindergarteners being asked to spend three or four hours blocks online, engaging with their teachers. This conversion was done without the support that the white paper was calling for.  The professional development never took place. The development of new content and techniques never took place.  People do traditional teaching on Zoom and largely receive technical advice rather than pedagogical advice. So the white paper still offers tools to rethink what's going on. Of course, there are innovative teachers across America doing that thinking now. We've heard from some of them through the Civic Imagination Project.  We're working regularly with some great teachers in the LA area and we do work with the National Writing Project. But teachers still need more guidance. 

As for participatory culture, we now see it in its best and in its worse, right.  We are seeing some of the challenges of networking and navigation and the verification of reliable information in a world of disinformation, misinformation, and sheer confusion. We've seen the breakdown of civility and the nastiness of cultural divides in the online world but also groups rallying to take social action in incredible ways. We've seen commercialization leaving young people particularly vulnerable to various mechanisms of data collection. Sonia Livingstone often talks about risks and benefits of children and families online and the challenge is to keep both in focus at once.

I still would remain  firm in the idea that literacy in a network era is a social skill and a cultural competency; that young people need to think through together, with mentorship from adults, how to respond to the social challenges they face in this online world and that the way out of our current crisis is to foster a generation that thinks more deeply than previous generations about the human beings they're interacting with and their accountability for the information they put in the circulation.  I would still like to see us raise a generation with a mouse in one hand and a book in the other.

Tessa Jolls: My take on it was that it represents the dawn of the social media era. It came out right at the beginning of Facebook. There was a reference to Myspace in it, Friendster. We've seen a lot of change in that particular environment and yet it was right on the cusp of this enormous explosion of social media. What's your take on that, Henry? 

Henry Jenkins: Convergence Culture -- which I wrote just before writing this report -- makes almost no reference to social media. That's always striking to me when I look back that it's still about discussion boards and not about social media. Convergence Culturealso does not reference Web 2.0 and Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culturepicks up on both of those. So it's somewhere in that transitional period when social media is first becoming visible to us and where the concept of Web 2.0 is starting to become popular. Certainly, I was well situated to know about social media as it was coming into being: dana boyd has been an early researcher on social media, a very important figure in that space. I remembered email correspondence with her where she started describing the work she was doing on Friendster and some of the earlier social media spaces. Some of the younger graduate students on the committee were more deeply immersed in social media at that point than I would have been.

I'm proud to have an early Facebook account because of the connections between MIT and Harvard, where Facebook was first created but we weren’t using it very heavily during that period of time. When I read the stuff about Web 2.0, I cringe a little because it's still written in this moment of celebration about what a transformation in business model and orientation Web 2.0 would represent.  It's not yet reflective of some of the critiques of Web 2.0 that would start to emerge in the years following that. I've become more and more clear trying to draw a distinction between participatory culture and Web 2.0 and the work we've done then.

The idealism of some of the Silicon Valley companies that I was interacting with during that period is very tangible.  When I spoke to them they weren't quite in the grasp of the venture capitalists. This is something danad boyd and Mimi Ito and I talked about in our book on Participatory Culture in a Networked Era,that shifts in the way we thought about Web 2.0. 

Tessa Jolls: Yes. That's why the word prescient is called for here, because the content of the report anticipated so many of the cultural aspects that would emerge with the increased use of Web 2.0 and social media.  Was that your impression as well? 

Henry Jenkins:Yes. I feel good about how it reads today. There's very little in it that I would change if I rewrote it now.  With any of the skills we identified,  you could drill as deeply as you wanted to. Many of these skills have been taken up by other specialists. Some of those skills reflect conversations that were taking place in the educational world at the time, like distributive cognition, which was something that the more education-trained members of our team brought to my attention. So, we were synthesizing what was in the air at the time. It is not that we invented collective intelligence; instead, we were consolidating it, and researchers that continue to do important work in each of those areas.

After it came out, we did some work to add one additional skill. visualization, because when we talked to science teachers and math teachers and so forth, it became abundantly clear that visualization is quite distinct from simulation. If we looked at it more closely, we might identify a couple of more skills that would need to be on that agenda. I don't think any of the skills that we identified seem wrong or out of date. They're all things that we need more urgently today than ever before. I think the balancing act we did in terms of acknowledging traditional research, traditional literacy, media literacy in relation to the new media literacy seems more as important, if not more so than ever before. This is an era of misinformation and disinformation. We need to have all of those skills to sort through what's going on day by day and the flow of information right now. 

Tessa Jolls:I thought the skills you cited are all relevant and more important than ever, as you said. If anything, it is disappointing to me that we haven't made more progress, from the standpoint of institutionalizing new media literacies. You called for a systemic approach to education regarding the new media literacies. In some ways, I think we're still stuck right where we were. What do you think? 

Henry Jenkins:The MacArthur Initiative, in general, identified large numbers of people who shared a common vision of what needed to be done and recruited a lot of individual teachers who were willing to take risks and experiment and do things in their classroom. At the end of the MacArthur-funded Digital Media and Learning Initiative, there is a much more, much stronger body of evidence in support of some of the hypotheses we put forth in that report. There were some nuances on how it needs to be taught and what it means to bring it into the classroom which are really significant. 

 What we didn't see was the institutionalization of it, the scalability of it. It's been hard to get even individual school districts on board. There's been good luck coming out of the Youth and Participatory Politics Initiative. Their Civic Tool Kit has been picked up in citywide or district-wide standards, but not on state or national standards so far. So in some ways, this experience taught me a lot about how hard it is to make institutional change in education. 

Change still comes on the backs of individual teachers who are willing to do the hard work, to bring new resources and approaches into their school and to fight their department chairs and their principals in order to do something that still seems risky. It shouldn't be risky, this many years later. I think getting wide adoption is really, really hard and MacArthur pushed against that, and still didn't inspire much momentum. We're still seeing the Connected Learning Network trying to fight that battle and again, they are running up against a lot of stone wall. 

Tessa Jolls:  In the report, you also called for the informal learning environment to be involved. Do you feel that there's been progress in that arena or do you feel like it's pretty much the same story as formal learning, in terms of scaling?

 Henry Jenkins: There have been some large scale initiatives, for example, the YouMedia project out of the Chicago Public Library. The MacArthur promoted this program and it led to many, many other libraries adopting that model. It may be the biggest success story coming out of Digital Media and Learning. The librarians have taken up the calling.  I spent time after the report was released talking to library organizations and I found them much more receptive than teacher organizations. If anything the role of the librarian as an information coach has now been firmly established in the way they conceptualize themselves. Many of them have been really open to the new media literacies in one way or another. So definitely we had much more freedom outside of school than inside school through libraries and even through school librarians. You have more freedom than the sort of standardized educational test-driven curriculum, but there is so much more that should be done to fully integrate those skills into the afterschool space.

Tessa Jolls: Regarding institutional barriers, and you mentioned in the report that there's the participation gap the transparency problem, and the ethics challenge. 

Henry Jenkins: Credibility issues seem more acute after 2016 and the misinformation campaigns and the debates about fake news and so forth. That's a huge problem that we're confronting today and we're realizing that our concerns are not just casual use of information but active massive misinformation campaigns that are undermining the idea of standards of truth. 

Similarly, we need to address the intractability of the participation gap. This is what led me some years after the report to shift talking about living in a more participatory culture because that phrase means every time I say it, I have to call attention to who's left out, what groups are not allowed to fully participate, and what the barriers the participation look like. 

Those barriers seem ever more real in the age of COVID. We wired the classrooms and promised people access to computers through libraries. Now we're hearing that as many as a quarter of students in LA don't have access to public education during the quarantine because they don't have home access. They can't go on Zoom calls with their teachers and participate with their classmates. They're locked-out.  Regarding the most basic level of technological access, we are as bad as we've ever been in serving the needs of the lowest-income students. We're hearing stories of students writing papers on their mobile phones because they don't have access to computers at home. We're also seeing young people who lack mentorship. They need to fully understand the world they're traveling through and to have someone who's watching their back and giving them insight about some of the choices they're making along the way. 

The ethics challenge increasingly came to focus on questions of mentorship because in the report we talked about some of the work that had been done on high school journalism as a space for mentoring future journalists.  We called out the degree to which at least some young people had greater access to the communication capacity than ever before, and less mentorship than ever before. The research I've seen more recently shows that this is still the case, that most young people don't have access to mentors who can help them confront the challenges they encounter as they move through the world online. 

Looking back, I don't think we understood the full complexities of the picture. I think the fact that since this systemic racism, for example, doesn't surface anywhere in the report.  We understood the participation gap almost entirely in terms of economic barriers to access. Today, it's clear that it's not just access to technology, it's access to knowledge and skills, but it's also access to certain kinds of privilege. It's access to people who are willing to listen and respond to what you have to say. If the message given is that what you say is unimportant because of the color of your skin, then that outweighs almost anything else we do in the space of new media literacy. That problem is more and more visible to us today than it was when we were writing that report, and I feel we were almost naive when I reread the report.  

Tessa Jolls:Interesting. Yes. We need to give hope to everyone and yet it has to be a real hope in terms of our culture, in our leadership, in our mentors, and being open to listening and exchanging ideas. 

Henry Jenkins: It doesn't do anything to ensure a voice for everyone if people aren’t making ethical commitments to listen to each other. Without that commitment, what I say about participatory culture as a learning environment is at best a set of ideals and not a description of reality. Students can develop a document to send government officials or a newspaper and even their own parents, but if they don’t get a response back, then is anyone listening?  That's a big problem for us as a society. So to have a participatory culture there has to be a reciprocity of communication. This is something that Nico Carpentier and I have been talking about a lot in recent years. How do you build that willingness to listen and willingness to hear? Otherwise, you've just got noise and to some degree, the divisiveness of Twitter grows out of that sense of growing frustration with lots of people talking and no one's hearing what it is they have to say. 

At the same time I'm seeing the updated numbers on young people producing media. I had a chance to observe it in an interesting way. When I traveled to India three years ago, an anthropologist took my wife and me into the center of one of the biggest slums in India, where they filmed Slumdog Millionaire.  We went into homes of people and talked to young people about their use of technology. Even under those conditions most of the young people we talked to had made some media. There was a really powerful story of a young man, who told me his best friend had died of tuberculosis. A friend of his had access to an office and smuggled the man at night so they could use the office computers to produce a video tribute to their friends from footage shot using cell phone cameras and put it out on YouTube. So that was a really powerful story to me of the young people fighting against every circumstance to create and share something with the world, but you see so many other young voices being unheard, despite all of that.

Tessa Jolls: In the report, there was a statement that we should look at the new media literacies as a social skill. In a sense, I think that's exactly what we're talking about here. There are social skills that are involved in speaking and listening and being respectful and having dialogue and using all kinds of different ways of communicating, whether it's transmedia or whether it's a particular form of media. So could you comment on that a bit? 

Henry Jenkins: If we look at traditional print-based literacy, it could be understood as an individual skill. I think that grew out of the fact that most people lack the capacity to communicate beyond an immediate circle of friends and family. So reading was understood as reading things that had been produced by someone else. Writing was understood as writing letters or maybe at most writing a letter to the editor of the local newspaper. There was almost an assumption that literacy didn't have large-scale social and cultural effects. In a networked society, we need to think of literacy as a collective experience, not just an individual experience.  So we look at a world where all the research shows young people get their news not by sitting down and reading the newspaper in the morning by grazing information throughout the day through social media. So, what they see of the world is what their friends pass along to them. A sense of social accountability/responsibility needs to go hand in hand with this expanded communication capacity. 

When we live in a world where hate speech has such an enormous, divisive effect on the culture then understanding the consequences of our own speech is really important. That has to be understood in the social context and not just an individual context. The problem is people see it as, "Oh, that is just my personal opinion or I was just expressing myself." They are not necessarily thinking of themselves is part of a larger information echo system that has a ripple effect across the world. 

Tessa Jolls: That too, is a very important point for today's society and the way that we use technology. It also builds on an idea that you introduced in the report, which was that we should be expanding literacies, not pushing aside literacies. So, in other words, with the new media literacies, we should be looking at enhancing people's ability to critically engage, to be able to understand that social context.  You put your finger on the pulse! Henry, where do you see the field going at this point? Having taken this look back, when you look forward, what do you see it? Do you feel that the report is a guide to that future?

Henry Jenkins: My own current work for the last how-many years has been in the area of civics, which picks up on a number of the themes from the report. When I re-read the report, I see my current thinking about the civic imagination as in some ways growing out of the discussion of play and out of the discussion of performance, but also, the act of imagining is something that is not in that report. I wasn't sure what skills I would add, but I find myself pondering whether something like imagination or world-building is not a skill that is more visible to us today than it was when we wrote that report. That skill set is one that in fact, I am spending much of my time working on, not just helping students or young people think about it. We certainly are still doing work with schools and libraries and after-school programs. We are also working with adult communities. We have done workshops with churches and mosques. We have done activities with governmental officials. We have done activities with labor unions. We have done projects all over the world on thinking about the civic imagination.

In some ways, this new work is an extension of the toolkit that we identify in that report. It is designed to specifically enhance the sense of possibility within the culture at large, and particularly the sense of civic connection. In that way, the sense of civics I am talking about in our new work probably connects with the social skills and cultural competency we are describing here. We are trying to figure out what the skills are that we need to live with each other, rather than continually grinding down at the core of our democracy with each election cycle and every battle in between, to the point that we are no longer speaking to each other. To me, that is the most urgent thing. In some ways, that is about extending our notion of new media literacy, to talk to adults as well as young people.  All of us in our society need networking skills, negotiation skills, judgment skills, as we process this new world we are living in. Now, we need to figure out how to inhabit a global society, and within the United States, to live in a much more diverse society than many of us grew up in.

Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture (Some Fifteen Years Later) (Part Three)

In part three in our series about the production and impact of Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture, we spend a little more time with Connie Yowell, who commissioned the report on behalf of the MacArthur Foundation; Alice Robison, who was one of the co-authors of the report; Mimi Ito, who was another key leader of the Digital Media and Learning Movement; and of course, Henry. We also check in with John Palfrey, who is now President of the MacArthur Foundation and was running an important center at Harvard focused around how “digital natives” learn at the time Jenkins was up the road at MIT.  Each of them addressed Tessa Jolls’ questions about the lasting legacy of the white paper and of the Digital Media and Learning Project more generally.

Connie Yowell: I thought the reaction was two fold. In general, it was like breathing fresh, new life into education and how people think about literacy and how they think about learning. There was a hunger, amongst teachers in particular, to really understand the report and understand what to do with it. Once they saw it, and read it, and understood it, they were really eager to figure out what to do with it. One of the core challenges for teachers is engaging students and finding ways to connect learning to the things that young people care about. Henry’s brilliance was sitting at the intersection of culture, media, literacy and education. It was a new intersection for educators and one that had the potential to pave the way to paradigmatic changes in how we think about learning, technology and learner empowerment. It’s where learner interest, engagement and action intersect. 

Later on, Henry’s work on the Harry Potter Alliance as an illustrative case of how these things come together was equally significant and enabled educators and learners to break out of their traditional learning as transmission of information box, giving us a whole new imagination on where learning can happen, how it can happen and how its supported and embedded in affinity groups.  That was the first step in creating a whole pathway into thinking about a different way of teaching literacy. 

 There was a broad uptake. There were fringes of people who were way more conservative, who really struggled with it, but we saw a massive uptake and interest.

if we had actually had even more uptake and more engagement, we would have had a way of helping our young people understand this shift in online tools that became more ad-based and more focused on capturing their attention rather than engaging them in participation. 

Henry was writing about the first wave of tools that came out, which were all around participation, and making and creating a more extraordinary youth culture--whether it was LiveJournal or some of the other tools he was looking at. Even MySpace was more maker and creator focused than Facebook.  But we took a serious turn with Twitter and Facebook and their use of media to capture and sell attention as opposed to creating onramps to participation and production.  The new media literacy took an invaluable approach to enabling youth to both be critical of and participatory in media. We needed more time to scale the approach, but its not too late.  Its time for another wave of the work.  

Connie Yowell is currently serving as Senior Vice Chancellor of Education Innovation at Northeastern University and was founder of LRNG.

John Palfrey:   It's great to be able to reflect on a previous time in a set of ideas and how they've then tracked through. It's kind of a cool intellectual history journey, which is fun to go on. I would say, clearly, your white paper was a catalytic piece in the context of the digital media and learning work that MacArthur committed many, many years and hundreds of millions of dollars to. You can take great pride in having set up a philosophical framework for a lot of that investment. Then, as Connie Yowell went on to take the LRNG spinoff out of the DML work, trying to focus on the new media literacies of young people outside of schools and in places from Chicago to Birmingham, Alabama, to New Hampshire, she's really taken the same set of ideas and implemented them in a variety of contexts. So it absolutely was one of several, very important blueprints from MacArthur's work and a huge amount of investment.

In some ways, it may be even unusual to say that scholars would have had such a huge impact on what such a program ended up doing. That's actually a hallmark of the Digital Media and Learning project. It took so many cues from the field and from leaders in the field, obviously, but it wasn't so much the brainchild necessarily just of one or two program officers. MacArthur was leaning into what the field thought was required for the next series of directions and then invested behind it. 

Henry Jenkins:  Well, thanks for that. So you were at Harvard at the time we were doing this and you were doing your work on digital natives?

John Palfrey:   We had a great interest in how kids were learning and engaging with information in different ways, and obviously, very focused on what are the ways that we could understand that and support it and then understand some of the ramifications of it. As you know, it was a fun time with danah boyd and, of course, your work and many others in the field kicking around Cambridge and to have interlocutors and people who are kind of writing in public together, both informally and formally. It was actually a pretty generative time, at least from my perspective in terms of thinking through how kids were learning, how that was changing, what was important about it, what was enduring. It kicked off a lot of work that followed.

Henry Jenkins:  The joke has always been that Harvard and MIT are two stops down the Red line and opposite ends of the planet at the same time. But, in those days, we were finding ourselves on somewhat similar trajectories and involved in some productive conversations.

John Palfrey:   I think it's a good example of not necessarily being in the same institution, but being focused on some similar questions and then being able to have a semi-public dialogue that actually could be quite constructive. I certainly am personally grateful for that.

Henry Jenkins:  Me too.   What do you think were the biggest insights that came out of that moment in time in terms in terms of understanding young people's relation to new media technologies?

John Palfrey:  The insights around agency are always ones I keep coming back to -- the things that kids can do relative to media.  It's not simply a passive experience. You and I both have had a great interest in the ways that young people can be involved in shaping, not just communities, but democracy itself. Those insights you included in the paper are important and enduring. The other piece of it, I would say, which is more of this moment, but it may well be enduring too, is that so many kids are learning outside of the classroom and outside of the formal structure of learning. An insight that came through your work, but then was amplified through the DML work broadly is how much learning is happening across a variety of things, whether it's cognitive or social-emotional.  It's harder to describe the kinds of learning kids do when they engage with media outside of school, independent of adult control, and removed from formal education. Right now, that's so important for all reasons - some fatigue; kids not having access to the technology, not being able to participate in the formal learning. It’s important to see that broader set of new media literacies come into play and understand why they matter. Where we can make that available for kids, there’s a huge benefit from an equity perspective. The work that one teacher is doing in that 30 minutes or 45 minutes or whatever it is on Zoom with kids who are not able to be physically proximate to each other actually isn't the end of the story. That may feel like it's sort of a pandemic answer to your question, but I think it could be an enduring answer too.

Henry Jenkins:  The pandemic obviously keeps cropping up in all of these conversations because suddenly, everyone's focused on schools, online education and what that looks like at the current moment. Notions like screen time just has blown up because everything is screen time and we need to be asking what kids are doing on those screens and not just whether there are screens involved.

John Palfrey:  What are you supposed to say? The data have not borne out the idea that screen time in aggregate is a bad thing for most kids. In fact, there's plenty of evidence to say that a bunch of screen time can be quite good for most kids. 

Henry Jenkins:   So, any further thoughts?

John Palfrey:   Just gratitude. I'm grateful for the ideas and the enduring connection and the fact that I get to talk with you for a few minutes across this divide. 

John Palfrey is the President of the MacArthur Foundation.

 Mimi Ito: Our report was empirical and descriptive unlike Henry's work, which was actually suggesting stuff that educators might do. We reissued the Hanging Out, Messing Around and Geeking Out book. We've issued a tenth anniversary version where we have a new foreword that looks back on the ten years and what we missed, or not necessarily what we missed, but how the ecosystem changed or what we were surprised about. I think the speed at which the grown-up world gobbled the internet was surprising, or maybe not surprising, but just how quickly it became this arena where grown-ups were doing their grown-up things and they got colonized by politics and commerce. 

When we were doing our research, it was much more of a youth and academic-centered space. It was very different. It was perceived as the space of freedom for young people. Now, it's not at all. Kids are retreating to private spaces and the open internet is not a happy place anymore.

It was a pleasant surprise how many educators embraced our work. I often take a critical view of educational institutions, and I’m not a big fan of teaching myself. I do research and mentor students but I don’t do classroom instruction. I actually enjoyed school myself, but I don’t look to the classroom as a place that is spearheading digital innovation. I wasn’t holding my breath about educator response to our work, but I was pleasantly surprised. Over the years I’ve learned to appreciate and collaborate with more educational institutions instead of just engaging with youth outside of school. It’s a good thing.

One of the big outcomes was the establishment of the YouMedia Learning Lab at the Chicago Public Library and the network of youth media labs that were based off of our research, at least in part. MacArthur incentivized those, but they also brought in a Federal funder, the Institute of Museum and Library Services. That was pretty exciting just to see actual programs being launched. It wasn't like it was an application of the research. It was because we were all in conversation with one another. Then a lot of our subsequent work around connected learning was really knitted around bringing insights from the empirical research, which my study was part of the design and agenda studying stuff, like Henry's report and then people who were actually building and rolling out tests and innovations and practice. Those things all fed together into the two research networks that Henry (Youth and Participatory Politics) and I (Connected Learning) were a part of to build frameworks that were evidenced-driven but were also setting the agenda for innovations and results. Because of MacArthur's funding of all of the subsequent work, there's this ongoing influence that this work has had and because they used the Hanging Out, Messing Around and Geeking Out framework for the youth media learning labs and they shortened it to an acronym, HOMAGO. Now, even the library spaces, they're routinely described as HOMAGO spaces.      

Mizuko “Mimi” Ito is a Professor in Residence at the Humanities Research Institute at the University of California, Irvine.

 
Tessa Jolls:  When you think back on it, do you feel like you were surprised by anything? Were there surprises that you just didn’t expect as a result of the reporting being published?

Alice Robinson:  I shouldn’t have been, but I was surprised that some media literacy educators were resentful that the report got so much attention. That was unfortunate; however, I don’t necessarily think they were wrong. We didn’t do enough to acknowledge the deep history of media literacy to begin with. However, I don’t think any of us wrote the paper with the intent of reaching an audience beyond media study folks. None of us was an expert in any way on media literacy and we should have brought in media literacy folks. We were a group of literacy scholars and media scholars, and it got taken up by the media literacy audience, but it was not written for the media literacy audience. We should have anticipated that, and we didn’t, and that was I think unfortunate. However, it was incredibly well received by literacy, especially digital literacy, scholars and educators, and that made me really happy because I really wanted them to look at literacy in different ways as not just sort of an acquisition problem and so I thought that that was really great. I was really thrilled that media folks found themselves thinking more about learning and literacy.

Tessa Jolls: Agreed. Media people, in general, were just in shock at that point in time and they were really scrambling to understand this new world that they were having [0:52:36 inaudible]and I think the report was just so awakening for a lot of them or they knew they needed to know something, and it gave them something to go to, and be able to understand the framework for it, and that articulation that you talked about was very important and [0:53:03 inaudible]for lots of people, so that… yeah, that’s a wonderful point to make.

AliceRobison, Ph.D.,is co-founder of Quick Brown Fox Consulting, LLC.

Mimi Ito:  I certainly don't think that our reports would have had the influence they did if there wasn't for the additional support MacArthur was giving to other organizations that were taking up the work. I'm guessing the same for Henry's report as well, but I don't have as much insight into that.   

Tessa Jolls: Yes, understandable. Do you think we're in one of those innovative moments now with COVID and all the homeschooling going on? I mean it's hard to tell, but at the same time it seems like things are really shaking up right now. That can be an opportunity, as well as certainly disruptive. 

Mimi Ito:  I think it's hard to know. I mean it's definitely going to change things. Whether it's an opportunity for the things we care about to survive --  that I think is less certain. It does feel to me similar to that moment in history that we were talking about earlier. COVID has really accelerated the next wave of mainstreaming of online learning. Before COVID, when people said online learning, they actually didn't think of the things that I study, like kids geeking out on videogames and things like that. They wouldn't have considered  the more expansive version of literacy that Henry talks about.  A lot of people would not associate that with digital learning because they think of online teaching as the delivery of standardized formal education for the most part. I think that has changed because people understand the importance of digital and social connection because of COVID. 

COVID has accelerated the recognition that kids can't learn academic subjects unless they feel connected and safe and/or well-fed. It seemed obvious but it's a big deal that is officially being recognized. Before COVID, homeschooling was growing slowly, but it was still a fringe set of groups that consider themselves homeschoolers and schools repeatedly ignored the home context and saw their mission as residing within the four walls of the school. 

We had been seeing a lot of growth in online learning in the Higher Ed because you have a lot of non-traditional learners there, but it had been really slow in the K12 sector.  Suddenly all doctors are doing telemedicine. It's like, "Okay. Now, we actually have to think about not only what  it means for kids to be able to access the school content from home, but also how do you design an online learning environment, which has never been a mainstream concern within education. 

The fact that Zoom has come to dominate online learning is unfortunate. Why aren’t virtual worlds where learners can interact socially and create things being used? I am running a nonprofit, Connected Camps, that is trying to do this more social and project-based kind of online learning, together with Katie Salen, also from the MacArthur network. Our focus has been offering live, social, online learning experiences in platforms like Minecraft and Roblox. These are some of the only learning platforms that some educators use, that allows for kids to engage in a social, hands-on way. Compare that to Zoom, which often translates to a second-rate version of lectures or classroom discussion. Minecraft is a digital environment that gives you new and different powers that you don’t have in the physical environment.

There were never resources or thoughts from educational community of putting imagination as a priority.  Imagine if we had invested in a metaverse that was actually good for kids where they could build things together and where a teacher could circulate among groups of kids instead of having this metaphor of face-to-face and breakout rooms, which is not how educators work.  If you want to do project-based stuff, You can't. It's very difficult to do anything that's inquiry-based in Zoom. Since March, we expanded our team from a group of 25 to 125 and we're still not able to meet the demand of summer. 

Tessa Jolls:   Wow! That's really something, Mimi. Congratulations. You kept into it, yet a good time and needed, so needed. 

Mimi Ito:  Yes, it almost killed us. We're still trying to keep things afloat, but there wasn't much out there. Families were just desperate for a step that was social and engaging and meaningful for their kids. 

Tessa Jolls:  Yes, I believe it. It's been so helpful to explore this with you because I think the timing is good with all of this change going on and yet I think it's also important to recognize how some of the work that was done early on has really blossomed. I think that the work that MacArthur undertook has really made a contribution and, in a way, we're probably going to see more from that contribution now even then we did in the past, especially when we look at the education space. Do you have any other thoughts you'd like to share on MacArthur and the impacts that it had? 

Mimi Ito: For a lot of people who are touched by it, it created a set of relationships in a community that has been very resilient.  Some of what I have tried to inherit and steward even after the official DML initiative ended a couple of years ago, I recruited eight faculty who were involved in the DML initiative to our campus at UC Irvine and started a new research institute, the Connected Learning Lab as a steward of some of the community and the resources that came out of that work.  We have a website, the Connected Learning Alliance, where we continue to blog and publish reports. My team at UC Irvine has been running the annual DML conference. Henry was our very first chair for the very first DML. We merged with Games, Learning, and Society and the Sandbox Summit, into a new event called the Connected Learning Summit, which we had to cancel this year.   This year would have been the third year in this new format. Yes, the community is still very robust. I have no idea if we're going to be able to continue it in the world post-COVID, but at least for the first two years, even after MacArthur ended its funding, it was sustainable as a community supported event. I think that the people like to see each other. They like to stay connected with each other. I think that's also a really nice outcome of that work. 

Mizuko “Mimi” Ito is a Professor in Residence at the Humanities Research Institute at the University of California, Irvine.

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Henry Jenkins: We wanted to make the report as concrete for teachers as we could. That was part of the writing process. So when the report came out, the first stories we were hearing were that groups of teachers were sitting down at the faculty lounge in schools across the country, reading the report, discussing it, trying to identify what they were already doing, trying to identify what next steps they wanted to take. I heard from so many teachers through the years, that they had department-wide or school-wide discussions over the report when it came out. That was really a surprise to me.

Then we started getting requests to translate it into foreign languages. We soon lost track of the number of different languages it got translated into. We are hearing reports, particularly in Scandinavia, was one pocket that really embraced it and was discussing it very far and wide. I was invited to Latin America after the report came out, to a Buenos Aires conference with delegates of all the school superintendents and educational policy-makers of the Latin American countries. So, we know it had an impact. We don't know how big an impact it was or where the impact was best felt because it was  beyond our control.  MacArthur put the report out in the public domain and people were translating themselves and studying it themselves. So, there is no way to estimate the scale of where it traveled.

The media literacy movement embraced the report  in a very serious and thoughtful way. There was some unfortunate divide. Some people didn't understand why we were not sticking with the traditional framework media literacy had developed through the years. We challenged them in some ways that we thought were productive. We saw the existing media literacy work as  part of a larger framework we were describing, and didn't feel the need to reinvent the wheel or to reproduce what was already out there, but instead, to  direct people to read that existing material. Some connected learning people probably did not appreciate fully the work that has already gone on in terms of the media literacy movement: the recruitment of teachers, the building up of the vocabulary, and so forth. I tried in my own work to bridge that divide and to be someone who had a toe in both of those camps and saw the potential of us working together to achieve a more literate culture in all senses of the word.

Tessa Jolls: You have really lived with those words, Henry. I know from my perspective, you cited the Center for Media Literacy’s framework called the attention to the fact that it was geared toward more of a passive kind of questioning in terms of media being developed by someone else. I think that your report had a huge impact. I know it did on our organization because we subsequently used your research and then developed a process of inquiry for producers of media so that it can be taken a questioning approach from an active standpoint. So, I think the research was very timely and very informative. 

Henry Jenkins: Yes, you  did an excellent job of revisiting that and responding to that critique in a very constructive and generative way. I appreciate it, that the critique got taken in the spirit in which it was meant. 

 The work that we did for the white paper led directly to the work we did with Ricardo Pitts Wiley, Wyn Kelly, Katie Clinton and others on the Moby-Dick project, which became the book, Reading in a Participatory Culture.  Erin Reilly took over the leadership of Project New Media Literacies from Margaret Weigel as we moved towards a fuller application of the ideas in the white paper, and we ended up, among other things, developing a professional development program for teachers associated with the Los Angeles Unified School District, helping them apply participatory learning practices into their classrooms. The conversations I was having with danah boyd and Mimi Ito were commemorated in the book, Participatory Culture in a Network Era, which is a book-long conversation about our intersecting research through the Digital Media and Learning initiative.

I continued to work with the MacArthur Foundation, moving gradually from work on new media literacies (with Erin Reilly) to work (with Sangita Shresthova) on civic media, civic engagement, the political lives of young people, first through the Youth in Participatory Politics Research Network.  Our work in that phase culminated with By Any Media Necessary: The New Youth Activists. More recently, our Civic Imagination Project is part of the civic media grant making that MacArthur is doing. So participatory culture has continued to drive a lot of the research that I've done.  It doesn't shape everything that I do. I've done work on comics and some other things that are largely unrelated to that strand, although you can always see the connections. But that strand on participatory culture runs from Textual Poachers atthe beginning of my career down to our current projects on Popular Culture and the Civic imagination and onward into the future. 

In the final section, Tessa Jolls and Henry Jenkins reflect back on the report today and what we know now that we did not know when the report was first written.

Confronting the Challenges of A Participatory Culture (Fifteen Plus Years Later) (Part Two)

In part two of this series on the writing and publication of Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture, longtime media literacy advocate Tessa Jolls interviews two of my co-authors for the report: Alice Robison and Ravi Purushotma about their experience, what ideas from the report they think has survived the test of time, and how these ideas about education relate to their current professional and family lives. Margaret Weigel, the Research Director for the project, tragically passed away a few years ago. Katie Clinton was unable to participate.

Henry Jenkins:    Ravi Purushotma was one of the master’s students at the time. He came to us with a very strong commitment to thinking about new media in relation to learning and education. His particular fascination was language learning. He was doing really interesting things in his own life to try to learn languages using everything from video games to his iPod, to immerse himself into new language. He seemed absolutely the right person to do this work.

Margaret Weigel had just graduated from the program and was looking for work after her time with us.  We hired her as the research director of that project. The research directors play a really crucial role in my approach. As co-director of the program, I was pulled in so many different directions. I was on planes constantly, raising money, trying to manage a lot of different research initiatives. I would be distracted from one moment to the next, and I needed people for each project who would wake up every morning thinking about that project and would grab my attention when things needed to happen. Margaret played this role admirably through this phase of the research. 

Alice Robinson was hired as our postdoc to work on this project. She was a classmate of Katie Clinton who had just moved to Boston. Katie and Alice had been students of James Paul Gee at University of Wisconsin, Madison. I had met them during trips to visit Gee and Kurt Squire and they had made strong impressions on me. I'd liked both of them very much and felt that they would cross pollinate between the game centered research that Gee was doing and the more fan directed research that I had been doing. This was a good team, especially given MIT did not have its own education school for me to draw upon.

Tessa Jolls:It's interesting to look back on it and see what were the takeaways, and definitely, the participatory culture went worldwide. It was just incredible that it just kind of spread like wildfire.  So definitely, there was a need out there. There was a hunger out there for this new way of looking at the world. Were you expecting that kind of reaction, Henry? How did you feel at the time in terms of having done the work and released it?

Henry Jenkins:We had no idea what the response was going to be. MacArthur told me that they had very mixed reception on previous white papers that they had issued from research. So my expectations were relatively low.  We wrote it collaboratively using software that allowed us to share the text in process with each other, we were really trying to apply the technologies we were talking about. Ravi kept us state of the art in terms of the tools we were using to write the report. 

As we finished that first draft, Connie Yowell decided it made sense to bring in a developmental editor to increase the clarity and make it more widely accessible.  We worked with that editor closely. Yowell saw that there was real potential with us and our report became something that was really targeted at diverse stakeholders. 

Fairly late in the process, we realized that we needed not just to describe the skills and the research behind them, but also give concrete examples of how teachers could deploy them in their classes. That's where the postdocs particularly came into play. We had these brainstorming sessions where we brought that whole team together and just said, here's a skill, what do we know that's going on out there, where do we look for more examples. We reached out to media literacy organizations of all kinds to fill in those holes there. That's become an important part of the report, even though that may be the most dated part because it was describing prototypes, some of which took off, some of which didn't but it captures what was happening in the world as people saw this change coming. We were trying to get ready for it. 

But no, I didn't expect anywhere near the reception that that report got. I'm still floored by the number of discussions that I've heard about that took place as that report was released to the world. It's worth saying the two reports were released in parallel, meaning, Ito's report and my report were announced at this event at the Museum of Natural History and simultaneously a press event was held in Second Life. So that was MacArthur trying to use a new toolkit to release its reports to the world. 

Alice Robison:  I wanted to make sure that… Henry talked about Margaret because, as you know, she had breast cancer, and it was pretty severe, and she passed very quickly, and we all miss her. Margaret was just an incredibly, cool, Gen-X chick, and-- she was a true artist, and a radical and really representative of the Gen Xers. She played bass. She wore Doc Martens every day. She’s just a really cool chick and having her be a part of this paper, I miss her and I really think she would have loved to have talked to you about it. I I’m sure Margaret would be thrilled to know you were doing this.

In a true Margaret way, actually, she announced it on Facebook. She said, “Look guys, it’s not looking good, and I’ve got breast cancer, and I’m going to go in for one more round of treatment,” but it was very quick with her, like she did not catch it early. She said, “I’d appreciate it if you could just post something here,” and we did, and we all wrote to her and posted things, and her brother read them to her, and then it was I think a day or two later that he posted and said, “Thank you all. I read them all to her. She heard everything you said before…” and then she just died. It was, of course, shocking and awful, but at the same time, it was cool that she allowed us all to use that space to tell her how much we love her, and that she got to know that, and she used that tool in order to…

I do remember presenting the report at the National Media Literacy Conference in St. Louis, and I just remember how incredibly well received it was by a small minority of people who were excited about what we were talking about. It’s always true whenever you present radical ideas to educators. It’s always the minority who are most enthusiastic and most excited because they’re the closest to those changes that are happening. The further away you are, the more skeptical you are and that’s just true of anything. That minority of people were excited to know that they weren’t the only ones who were seeing the changes that we were seeing and they were so thrilled to get the validation that they had been seeking for a long time, and so for that, I’m still incredibly grateful.

There’s always going to be changes in platforms, right? There’s always going to be changes in applications and tools, but I think the principles that we described in the paper are still true. What we wrote in that paper is still very much true about distributed storytelling, and distributed cognition, and the ways that all of these media are specifically designed and created by teams of people in a very social way in a way that’s meant to be appreciated in social ways by people who love that content.

I have a nine-year-old and a seven-year-old. I was explaining to their teachers, not too long ago, that for them, YouTube stars are what rock stars were to us when we were young. My nine-year-old is begging me to have her own YouTube channel because she wants to be a media creator and create content for large groups of fans. She’s not thinking about, “Oh, this is going to appeal to a specific tailored-group.” She’s thinking, “I want everyone to love Minecraft as much as I do.” I think that was one thing that we probably could have been more articulate about.

We talked about, what was it, the transparency problem, the participation gap, and the ethics challenge.  The transparency problem is the one that most people are surprised by, meaning the persistence of the myths of the digital native will never die and I fought for years against this, and it still persists, engrained in millennial parents because a lot of these folks we were writing about then are now parents of their own children.

I’m part of an online summer camp for kids here, and we are spending hours talking about how to get all of our kids together on the same Minecraft server, and these other parents are just really resistant to think about how they might have something to offer their kids about how to be present in a collaborative online space and it’s so surprising to me that they would be so resistant to think, “Hey, maybe I should teach my kids a little bit about ‘password,’ or why you might want to think about muting yourself, or turning off your video, or think about what you say to others, or what does ‘griefing’ mean and why is it important not to grief someone, or why do we want to be careful about respecting what other people build in that space,” and they just assume  that their kids can just jump right onto this game and its online space with other people and know what to do. The transparency problem is still a huge concern of mine, and we don’t talk about it enough. 

We do talk a lot about the participation gap and the ethics challenge; but for example, rural internet is still very weak, still very limited, and it’s… we’re looking at things like how are we going to have distributed learning come August. Out here, we start school the very first week in August, some districts start at the end of July, and we still don’t have plans for how we’re going to do online learning for rural districts here in Arizona, how are we going to get them access, yeah, or what can be done on mobile devices. The Navajo Nation here in Arizona is one of the worst-hit COVID-19 population. I don’t imagine anyone that’s going to want to put those kids in classroom. What do we do if you don’t even have access to water? How are you going to have access to the internet? These things are really difficult, and I do believe that schools want the best for their students. I do strongly believe that there are limited numbers of things that can be covered in any given day, but the participation gap is still just as powerful as it was 16 years ago and the transparency issue is barely studied at all, so that’s something that frustrates me.

I don’t know if you know Katie Salen Tekinbas. She’s at UC Irvine. Katie Salen Tekinbas did the school project called “Quest to Learn” in New York City, that’s a school based on principles of gaming, Salen and Mimi Ito created something called “Connected Camps.” My  nine-year-old is participating… she’s done every single camp they’ve offered. It’s been wonderful to see how the principles that we wrote about are enacted in online digital curriculum and folks who are teaching these classes have no idea where this stuff comes from. They’re just thrilled to be teaching a class in Minecraft, but it’s fun for me to see my kid do the kinds of things that I wrote about 16 years ago.

Katie Clinton and I are very close, and we went to graduate school together, and we both went to work with Henry together. Katie’s son, same thing. It’s been so great to see and… I feel like all we did was really articulate what everyone who is immersed in digital media consumption at that time already knew. We just put it down on paper.

At the time Katie Clinton and I were finishing our dissertations and we were doing research on how video games were particularly good instantiations of what we already knew about learning science and how people learn, that’s different from saying, “Video games should be used to teach content areas,” okay? We were constantly trying to distinguish between video games as good instantiations of the research on learning versus folks who were in classroom being told to teach content with curriculum that was handed to them who wanted to use video games as a vehicle for that. Those are two different things, and so in the media literacy paper, we didn’t want to make that same mistake. We didn’t want to reduce what we were observing to a set of skills because we didn’t want that to be interpreted as, “Here’s the formula that you should be teaching in your class. Teach them how to blog, how to create YouTube channel.” Instead we were saying, “No, no, no. You need to teach them how to look at these phases in a different way. What you do with that is up to you,” but these phases are being created, and interpreted, and used in all kinds of fascinating new ways, what that ends up being translated to in the classroom is up to you because it’s your classroom, but we don’t want to reduce it down to a simple activity. 

Those little sections on what might be done, those are really tough to write. We understood the need. When we got feedback from readers, “Well, we want examples. We want examples,” and so we offered those examples, and I think they were good examples, but if you’ll notice, they’re not curriculum. Each of those sections, what might be done. Their ideas, their examples, they’re meant to be taken as such. They’re instantiations of the framework and examples of things that we had seen people do, and so we wanted to hold them up as good examples of the kinds of things we’re talking about without saying, “Here. Go teach X.”

Let’s say you’re teaching world history, that’s very, very different from teaching in a radio and TV lab. You can still use these principles in both content areas, but maybe one is going to be much more applied and the other one is going to be much more conceptual, but both can use these principles and use the framework in equally successful ways. There’s so many fantastic examples of how you could talk about distributed cognition in a whole class on the video game, Legends and use it  for example, in the Connected Camp. My daughter takes a weekly class in Minecraft, learning about ancient history of Rome, and they’re using all these principles, appropriation, distributed cognition, multitasking, all of the same things that we describe in the paper, they’re doing in that space and it’s because Katie Salen said, “Hey, Minecraft is a great place to explore what it was like to be a citizen in Ancient Rome,” but it’s not a class on ancient Roman history for a nine-year-old. …

 AliceRobison, Ph.D.,is co-founder of Quick Brown Fox Consulting, LLC.

 Ravi Purushotma: Henry was just always a brilliant mind and able to predict things quite well. It’s been a blast over the last couple decades to have had such insight into where things would be going. I mean, we really took it for granted just how aware of the direction things were changing we became by being around him.

If we were re-writing the report today, we might use some different language. There was a lot of talk about things like affinity spaces back in the time and maybe today we’d be using slightly different vocabulary. But, fundamentally, the underlying concepts of how we need to develop the skills to be able to take in information from society accurately, the skills to produce content and share information back with society in the best means possible -- that students need to find their voice. I think the underlying concepts still form the same fundamental conversation we’re having today.

Tessa Jolls:  Sure, yeah. But conceptually, you think, “Hey, yeah, we captured it,” and so that’s really gratifying to feel like it’s being used or could be used today. I think in that regard, the report really did make an impact at that time. What was your perspective about the impact that the report had?

Ravi Puralena:  I’m actually probably not super aware of the impact. I definitely got a sense it was getting good distribution. I would meet people randomly in social circles who would say, “Oh, my God. We just read your report in my grad seminar at Stanford!” So, events like that definitely gave me a sense that it seemed to have been an impactful report. But, for the most part, I had switched over to educational game design after graduating and I was a bit out of the media literacy discussion afterwards.

I guess I was trusting Henry a bit on where the report would land and where it would all go. Back at that age, I was much less attached to the process and just super excited to be a part of it all. I knew I wanted to make a difference in the Education and Media landscapes, but there was always, and there still is, a lot of uncertainty in my mind about where the best insertion point for making a change is. For change to happen, a lot of different efforts have to come together in parallel: some people need to take on arguing with the skeptics or traditionalists or policy-makers; some people need to be mentoring the open-minded but hesitant people looking to take their first steps; some people need to be trailblazing with the savvy early adopters and inventing the best possible solutions. In this field, there’s different media forms associated with each of those: the first one needs to be books and whitepapers like the one we wrote, the second might be things like YouTube guides and the latter might be things like programming mobile apps. Given my strong technical background, I always felt suited to the later. There also was simply more job opportunities being in the latter than the former. Also, I tend to get better energy being on the creative/trailblazing side of things rather than the arguing with the skeptics side. Though I’m super grateful for people like Henry who are able to do that role so well, after I graduate I somewhat left that role to them. Instead I was doing things like working with a Fortune 100 company to program an app to help kids in Latin America to create, tell and record stories.

I guess, even when starting the whole paper writing process, I didn’t fully understand what it was and where it could go. I think it’s really stunning for me to think back retrospectively about actually writing the paper. At the start, I don’t think I actually understood what the term “Media Literacy” meant or how to articulate it. I got “21st Century Skills.” But, even half-way through writing the paper, if you had told me “People think about ‘Literacy’ as the ability to read a book or write a paper. But, it’s really the skill of taking information in from society and producing information to contribute to society. You need to be able to take information in from more than just books and create more than just papers in order to really be ‘Literate’ today or have a voice.” I would have responded “Wooooah! I totally never thought of it that way!!!” But, piecing it all together while writing it -- it was a crazy journey to think about how that all came together.

I guess maybe to back up a bit. Originally, I don’t think even Henry knew that the paper was going to be such a big scope or the core focus it ended up being. I got the sense, originally, at the very beginning, that this was kind of my project personally and that maybe he would come in at the end, do a bit of fine touching and what not, but, fundamentally a simple paper I was to write about 21st Century Skills. I had written over a hundred pages of the original first draft before anybody had seen anything. Then, it started to evolve with more discussions from the Foundation and become clear that we were going to turn it into a much more involved paper. Henry was able to step in and pull together the huge gaps in my understanding of the field at the time and take my hundreds of pages, and really expand then edited it into just a much more polished and comprehensively articulated work. Originally, though, it started with a very different scope before evolving to what it became.

Looking back on it, one really unique thing about the paper for the time was the way it involved having multiple people writing it simultaneously. It's something we take for granted nowadays, having such easy access to Google Docs, but, I think the tools used for collaborating really impact the content of the writing. Perhaps one reason the paper was received so well is because of how unified the different voices of the authors felt compared to other papers at the time. And perhaps one reason for that was because it was one of the first papers of its scope to be written entirely in an online collaborative environment. At the time Google Docs didn’t exist. There was a small startup tool called “Writely” which I had identified and thought could be a good tool for this paper. It was still in beta at the time and incredibly buggy. I knew it was a big ask for all these academics to take a tool as fundamental to them as their word processor and ask them to replace it with the totally new way of doing things in the midst of a project with important deadlines. And the interface was totally unintuitive. I remember how frustrating it was for Henry: at one dinner someone made a comment about what a genius he was and he replied something like “I’m no genius, I can’t even figure out how to operate my word processor!” But, I really admired his willingness to give it a try, to show humility in always asking me for help learning to use a new technical tool and navigating through all its quirks and bugs. I think most people would have just said “Just send me a Word Docs with track changes turned on like I’ve been doing for 20 years. We’re in the middle of a big project. This isn’t the time for me to be learning this Writely thing that you’re fixated on [and is making me feel inept].” Perhaps it’s because they would have felt embarrassed to be the one to say that given the content of what we were writing about. But, for whatever reason, we persevered and I think the level of collaboration we had as a result really changed the tone and voicing of the paper for the better and was a first for its time. Writely was eventually acquired by Google and became Google Docs, so, nowadays it’s essentially the standard way of writing a collaborative paper. But, at the time of Writely Beta -- or ‘Writerly’ as Henry kept calling it -- it was unique.

After I graduated, I then moved from the media literacy side of Henry’s department to the educational video game side. I worked as a research manager in the Education Arcade lab, then for a spin-off, for many years focusing on educational video games design. I had a fellowship in Germany for almost two years teaching classes and meeting with various government officials for discussions about how technology can enhance language learning & education. Then, eventually, I moved to California and have been working largely in the tech industry here, gaining a lot more programming skills and more the technical side of media development. Some more work in educational games, but also just in general industry --  web programming, mobile app development, things like that. When I first got married, I needed to focus really on income and so I was working for an artificial intelligence company creating tools for doing financial audits. Now that my wife is further in her career, I have more flexibility to kind of go back into Educational design. I started making some content for Coursera. I’m hoping someday there’ll be more opportunities to utilize my tech background for more Media Literacy work. Perhaps once I’m a parent I’ll find a way of creating more creative activities and apps for parents and kids. But, currently Media Literacy is more just a hobby. Like, a week or two ago, I made a little video I posted on my facebook page discussing religious texts and what it means for someone from today's literate society to try and interpret something from an oral tradition 2,000 years ago and apply it to their life. I’ve been putting out little videos and things on those kinds of topics and constantly discussing it with people in my religious community, and work life. So, even though I’ve left academia, it’s still a discussion and a movement I love at heart and hope all my different backgrounds will intersect again someday.

Ravi Purushotma currently authors videos, games and apps for clients looking to use digital media to make learning & instruction more engaging.

Next time, We will consider the publication of the report and its subsequent impact on our understanding of media literacy.

Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture (Fifteen Plus Years Later) (Part One)

The white paper, Confronting the Challenges of a Participatory Culture, was published by the MacArthur Foundation sixteen years ago. This document, prepared by Henry Jenkins and a team of researchers at MIT, offered an important reframing of media literacy which reflected the shifting realities of the digital era -- new affordances, new practices, and new opportunities were leading to new forms of informal learning that were playing an important role in the lives of many American youth. Educators were often slow to recognize the value of these new spaces as a site for developing new skills or the ways literacy changed in a world where young people were creating and sharing media with each other in record numbers. 

Across this series, we are going to provide an oral history of how that report came to be written and what its impact was at the time of publication. In this opening segment, we speak to Connie Yowell, who headed the Digital Media and Learning Initiative for the MacArthur Foundation; Mimi Ito, who was a second pillar of the initial research for the Digital Media and Learning Initiative; and Henry Jenkins, who was the primary author of the Participatory Culture White Paper. Long time media literacy advocate Tessa Jolls conducted the interviews.

Connie Yowell:  In 2004, we were coming out of a $30 million initiative and district reform that was focused on teacher professional development and evidence-based approaches to teacher professional development. It was state of the art. It was a really thoughtful, forward looking set of commitments we had made revolving around the notion that the teacher was going to be the core unit of change in transforming schools and that we needed to focus on professional development. We were in three districts doing district wide reform, and within three years, we cycled through 11 superintendents and made almost no progress. 

The MacArthur Board was paying attention. They said, there’s got to be something different we can do. We had John Seely Brown on our board, the former head of Xerox. John said we should be looking over the horizon and thinking about the impact of digital media, and these new tools that are coming out, and what they mean for learning. I was like, well, I don’t do that. I’m a hardcore educator. I don’t believe in technology making a difference.  I’m out of here. 

What we decided in the meantime was to split the difference, because MacArthur didn’t want me to leave, which I appreciated, and to do three exploratory pieces of work. Henry’s piece was one of the three. Another one was Mimi Ito’s research. We asked her, with her group of 25 researchers, to do an ethnographic study of how young people were using digital media outside of school. We had Nicole Pinker in Chicago, who’s a computer scientist, and we just said, “you’re in our backyard”. It allowed us, the staff, to be able to come and spend some time with teachers and kids to see how they were doing intervention with technology.

Great. But neither of those was the conceptual piece. Neither of those pieces were really grounded. In reading Henry’s stuff, I was really coming to understand the transformation in the culture. We needed somebody who really understood the relationship between culture and media and what it means for thinking and production and creativity and all the things that Henry focuses on. Then, the third piece was for Henry to really dive deep conceptually to help us and to help the field understand what was happening both from a theoretical and a more practical perspective. He was able to understand the media in a much different way and explain a new set of literacies. We were looking for Henry and his team to really conceptually, intellectually drive that work I mean, he’s got all those literacies. His team has all those literacies. He’s deep in it, but to have him start writing about it and really make explicit what the combination of these new digital tools plus culture was going to create. 

That was the genesis of the work. We had brought Henry with Mimi and Nicole to be our consultants to help make us be smarter. It really became clear that we needed him to be our intellectual center, and his team to really push that thinking to the world of education, because this new thinking wasn’t going to come out of the world of education. 

Tessa Jolls: I think that’s a really important point and something that I don’t know how we can shift education easily. I mean, it’s a real challenge, but I always felt that this work was really important in terms of holding up this mirror for where we were and trying to help educators see that we needed to move in a different direction. 

Connie Yowell:   Yes. In order to do that, educators, we all do, need a conceptual frame. We need to know the categories and the buckets that matter in this new world and why they matter. A big piece of the work that Henry was doing and his team was doing, from my perspective, was coming up with those key conceptual categories that are grounded in pop culture.  In our vision of innovation, we needed to go deep on the adjacencies to education. We weren’t funding directly within the education space; instead, we were funding all of the adjacent places where new ideas were coming to life then figuring out what they would mean for education and for learning. Henry’s work is clearly a core adjacency that needed to become infused inside education. 

Connie Yowell is currently serving as Senior Vice Chancellor of Education Innovation at Northeastern University and was founder of LRNG.

Henry Jenkins: This was my very first opportunity to work with the MacArthur Foundation. We've been working with them continuously for the last 15 years since the report was written.  I was midway through my time co-directing the Comparative Media Studies Program at MIT. We had launched the program with the goal of providing a new kind of master's program in media studies, one that was committed to preparing people to go out in the world and make a difference in industry, journalism, public policy and academia. It was a program that would have a very strong applied logic to it. We wanted students to take what they were studying in their classes and to apply that in an immediate way to pressing problems in conversation with real world stakeholders. Project New Media Literacies was one of our major research initiatives but one among others. We were also researching games-based education, games and innovation, global media policy, civic media, and the creative industries. Each of those projects allowed a mix of students to engage in an active research process based on their own career goals and commitments. 

 As we were reaching out to identify what those research opportunities were, I was in a dialogue with danah boyd, who took some classes under me when she was a master's student at the MIT Media Lab. She was advising Connie Yowell at MacArthur, about the launch of some new initiatives around digital media and learning. Through her intervention, I was invited out to San Francisco for a conference at the old Exploratorium, where we were to present some insights into the current media environment, with the idea of impressing the MacArthur leadership, and hopefully getting some grant funds out of it.   As I was doing that first presentation, something went wrong with the PowerPoint. It was basically shuffling the slides randomly throughout the entire presentation. So I had a rich deck of stuff prepared to share, but on the fly, I was having to adjust my talk to reflect the images on the screen, with no sense of what might pop up next. No one ever dared to say to me, was that a random presentation or did you plan it that way? But it must have been strong enough because that launched one of the most important relationships of my academic career.

Connie had situated me next to the President of the MacArthur Foundation on the bus trip back to the hotel, and asked me to explain to him why media literacy should be part of their initiative. I did so. I don't remember anything I said in that conversation. By the time we got off the bus, he was sold on the idea that media literacy should be part of MacArthur’s agenda. Everyone, all the staff at MacArthur seemed really thrilled that I somehow convinced him of this. I was asked to both write a white paper and to do some proof of concept demos.

I was already dabbling in media literacy. I'd written the column for Technology Reviewthat you and a number of other people had seen and responded to. I was starting to get invitations to speak at media literacy conferences in the New England area. We had begun to do a series of conferences called We’ve Wired the Classroom -- Now What? They were designed for local educators to think about the next steps towards online education -- what kinds of curricular materials and professional development were required, what new projects were emerging.

Right now, we’re suddenly relying on online education nationwide, but a lot of the work we were advocating then never took place. Many of the challenges we now confront were being discussed at these conferences decades ago. 

Many of us saw a need for advocacy for the digital realm, something like National Public Radio or National Public Television that was going to generate content, develop curricular materials, take advantage of the experiments that were going on, and bring the teachers along. As the conference title suggests, it's not enough to wire the classroom and just assume that everything else falls into place because it doesn't. The wires are the least of it. The Clinton administration at that time was pushing them to wire all the classrooms in America, saying this would close the digital divide, and we knew it wouldn't.

The main thinkers of that period were passing through MIT— like Howard Rheingold who was doing groundbreaking thinking about the virtual community, and regularly speaking at MIT. Sherry Turkle was a colleague at MIT who was raising important questions about online conversations, identity in a networked world, and the blurring of reality and the imaginary online.  We had great students like danah boyd passing through MIT. She was shaking up our thinking because she was so grounded in the youth culture and what they were doing online. 

Part of our mandate from MacArthur had been to look across the research that had been done on learning and fandom and gaming spaces. This helped us gain insight into learning in other online communities and bringing that back to schools. Throughout that report are signs of the conversations we were engaged with MIT on games-based learning. Alongside the work we were doing for MacArthur, we were doing Microsoft-funded research making the educational case for how games might serve educational purposes.  We called that initiative Games to Teach and as we expanded our funding, it became The Education Arcade.  Kurt Squire, the original Research Director for Games to Teach, left MIT and ended up at University of Wisconsin-Madison with James Paul Gee. It’s no accident that two of James Paul Gee's students are on the team that wrote the Macarthur white paper with me. So, there was a cross-pollination with one of the major centers for thinking about games-based education. I am still seeing the importance of that pioneering work even as I fear that this language of gamification has rigidified a lot of the creative experiments that were going on into the narrowest possible version of what games-based education could look like. I am very pleased to see this new book Locally Played by Benjamin Stokes who was, at the time, one of my foundation officers at MacArthur and later became my PhD student at USC. Ben’s new book stresses how games played in real world spaces can enhance community building. 

 I don't think that report could have come out of any place other than MIT. Being at MIT left us ahead of the curve in the midst of ongoing conversations about the social and cultural impact of emerging platforms and practices. I was housemaster in an MIT dormitory, and I could walk up and down the halls, and just see what students were doing online. That was part of my night job, so it wasn't even necessarily formalized research. But there were lots of insights that made their way into that report that grew out of just living in an MIT environment with those students.

Tessa Jolls:  Yes, and I think that's fascinating how all of that came together at this special time. How then was that connection made in terms of, hey, we need a report, we need this theoretical framework outlined?

Henry Jenkins:  As Connie Yowell describes in her interview, she was working with Nicole Pinker. She was working with Mimi Ito. She was working with me. There were conversations amongst us about how we were progressing. I certainly was following Mimi Ito’s research. She invited me to participate in discussions with her research groups at multiple points along the way, and vice versa. I think it was very clear that we needed a shared vocabulary to talk about learning in this environment. I also felt that we needed to make the case to educators for why the kinds of informal learning that were taking place in young people's lives outside of school were in fact pertinent to what teachers did in their classrooms. 

Mimi's work was really documenting youth digital practices out in the world. She ended up using youth vernacular to frame her theories. She talks about “hanging out, messing around, geeking out”. Those are terms that emerged organically from the young people she interviewed. My task was the opposite: to take what we knew from research on informal learning, fan communities, gaming communities, and write it up in a way that would speak to teachers, to principals, the school board members, the state policymakers, grant funders. So I was giving academic terms to practices that probably would have been described rather differently by the young people themselves. 

As we got into it, it was also clear that young people were being taught to devalue their own experiences, to devalue the ways they were learning and what they were learning in these informal spaces. I've come to recognize the importance of helping young people think about why it's important to take seriously those opportunities, as alongside helping teachers think about how to incorporate those skills and practices into the schools. 

Tessa Jolls: Yes, absolutely. You really were at this confluence of all of these ideas swirling around. Fortunately, it seems, like, I know and talking with Connie and with Mimi, they saw a need to really articulate more of the theoretical foundations and then turn to you. It was just incredible timing, well, not really coincidence, but definitely you were the man of the time and that really made all the difference.

Henry Jenkins is currently Provost's Professor of Communication, Journalism, Cinematic Arts, and Education at the University of Southern California and is the Principal Investigator for the Civic Imagination Project (funded by MacArthur).

Mimi Ito: Henry was focused on writing a more conceptual summative piece and then around the same, we had started fieldwork on what young people were doing in the digital landscape. We were looking at kids who were on Myspace and instant messenger primarily and had not really made the leap to text messaging, which is hard to believe.  The US was very late to text messaging compared to the rest of the post-industrial world. The US was an outlier, so kids were still using a lot of instant messengers around then. This is pre-iPhone. Sometimes I get my chronology wrong ... yes, it was definitely pre-iPhone. MacArthur deciding to look at the online world as an arena for understanding learning was ahead of the time. John Seely Brown had just joined the board and it was a bold move at that time. 

Tessa Jolls: Yes, it certainly was. It was interesting, too, because the emphasis was certainly on the education, but not education in schools. It was really centered around the technology and, of course, that was rapidly developing. We didn't even have a clue about what was coming, but I guess that isn't quite fair. We did have some clues, but nevertheless, when we really didn't have, as you said, the adoption of the social media and so on, but what did you feel then was your major challenge in terms of the research you were doing? 

Mimi Ito: I was in that post-doctoral phase when all of this started. I had been studying how kids learn with video games and socializing and other things.  I was an educational researcher as well as a cultural anthropologist by training.  I wrote the first dissertation about digital culture in our anthropology department, but a lot of the perspective came from youth culture studies and so on. 

I was very familiar with Henry's work because there weren't really many people doing work in the States. Henry had written an early paper on videogames and had been one of the few senior media study scholars who would look at video games at all. At that time, I don't think Henry was that deep into learning and education.  I was delighted that he was brought into the MacArthur initiative and was writing the paper around literacy, which is obviously a great bridge to the education side. I was always the black sheep of educational research because I looked at what kids did for fun, like play videogames. I had just finished the study of Yu-Gi-Oh!, which is a post-Pokémontrading card game and I described what kids learn from playing those kinds of complex games.  Early networks, multiplayer games, text-based games were really the only environment at the time that I could see kids connecting socially via digital media because none of this other stuff had taken off yet. I had done research on mobile phones and texting in Japan, but the MacArthur Initiative kicked off right at that time when those things were starting to converge.

Henry was writing his book on convergence culture and suddenly you were at the beginning of seeing rich digital media in a social environment and games turned into real-time multiplayer network for the first time. ... there was a five-year period when all of that was converging, which was also that period that this paper that Henry was working on was pulled together and our digital youth study started. 

For me, it was very much an extension of work I had already been doing theoretically and conceptually, but suddenly, it became a big thing in the world… I had just spent two years in Japan studying the birth of camera phones and the mobile Internet and these weird videogames that were very social and then suddenly the rest of the world got interested.   That was when MacArthur stepped in, yes. I was starting to write about this stuff, suddenly the whole world was interested. I had already seen how youth culture was an incubator of trends around the digital. By 2004, people were paying attention to the mobile internet. It wasn't just high school girls in Tokyo. 

I was pretty confident in the topics I was choosing that they were going to become global phenomena that transcended ages. If you were an observer of the digital environment, you knew this was going to explode. That part was not surprising. I think the question of whether educators would pay attention, that was not preordained. MacArthur had important influence supporting a counter-narrative. Henry's paper was really instrumental in that. 

Tessa Jolls: Interesting, yes. Again, the impact on the different audience, splinters, educators versus the technology people and so on is really interesting because traditionally the education segment has always lagged and not necessarily been there. It was really important to have some impact on that particular audience and I think these reports did. That was something very different. 

Mimi Ito:  MacArthur’s choices of scholars were not in the educational mainstream. Bringing people like Henry into the conversation around education was an interesting move because Henry has credibility within the media and gaming space. That helped knit those worlds together, I think, in an important way. 

Mizuko “Mimi” Ito is a Professor in Residence at the Humanities Research Institute at the University of California, Irvine.

Next time, we will check in with Henry’s co-authors on the project to see how they are living with those insights in their professional and personal lives today.

Race. Identity and Memory in Lovecraft Country: A Conversation (Part Two)

Kyu Hyun Kim: Among the strengths of Lovecraft Country as Shawn discusses I was particularly taken by depiction of the series's black characters as organic intellectuals per Gramsci. This observation led me to think about how Asian Americans have been presented in the US mainstream genre works. While there are plenty of occasions for associating Asian Americans with "book-smart" qualities and with technological expertise or academic knowledge, I doubt that these stereotypes really function the way you recognize as organic intellectuals. More often than not, the "book-smart" qualities are merely there to highlight social akwardness or bodily weaknesses. It gets even more complicated when the weight of the US-centered historical perspective (left-anti-imperialist or right-American-Exceptionalist) is added to a character: Hiro from Heroes, for instance.

Shawn's piece also returns me to one of my initial questions, which is how do we make use out of a profoundly racist or otherwise deeply problematic classic source that nonetheless has become greatly influential and remain alluring for the creatives? Would you say that Lovecraft Country basically evades this issue by merely appropriating cultural capital of the author's name? The series was not convincing to me as a critique of the racism underlying the Lovecraftian mythos, provided that it was ever intended as such. The fury of Christine who got excluded from the Order of Adam because of her gender seems to have received a greater attention, and then that angle also seems to become curiously defused as the series reaches its resolution. Where is the equivalent of Nyarlatothep or Fungi from Yuggoth, rethought and transformed in the manner African-American characters were in this series? Maybe we don't need them at all, but then again, this somehow leaves me vaguely cheated: was the series's end somehow meant to suggest the critical inversion of Lovecraft's racism? If so, I still remain unconvinced.

Sorry this is really so incoherent and all over the place. But in any case thank you Shawn for your great thought piece!

Shawn Taylor: Something that Kyu Hyun’s brilliant excavating of Love Country sparked in me is the many ways Asians and Pacific Islanders exist as the every and no-things of (I’ll generically call) the genres of the fantastic. But we’ll get to that. 

I agree with Kyu Hyun that there was little Lovecraft in Lovecraft Country. It makes me wonder if the disconnect was in the LC novel—a book written by a white man, attempting to tell a horror story centering on a Black family; or the adaptation by Black creatives from the source material—in either case, the lack of real Lovecraftian cosmic horror felt like a distorted minor key. It was instantly recognizable, but this false note engendered questions instead of dismissal of the work. At least for me. To see the twin horror of racism and monsters, in the same work, was a revelation—despite some of the plot holes, lip service to every genre, and the blatant omission of a resolution of the most fascinating relationship in the entire series, that of Ruby and Christina.

Their relationship and its Cronenbergian body-horror dynamics could have been an entire series, unto itself. This relationship also brings to the fore questions that always arise when considering shapeshifters: what is racial phenotype and sex to one who can change those qualities? There were a lot of intriguing questions left on the table. Alas. I’ll stick a pin in this, for now. 

 Before the episode, “Meet Me in Daegu”, I had only a passing familiarity with Korea, it’s politics, or its mythology. In the West, in my experience, especially in the States, there is a mashing together of Asian cultures. Not in a useful, transcultural way that highlights exchange, mutual influence, and the very real specter of colonization—but of laziness. No other word for it. Asian, instead of taking the time to explore what this means, becomes a catchall, something to affix as a label without having to do any more exploration.

So, when the Kumiho was introduced, I became angry (through my ignorance) because I thought they’d injected the Japanese Kitsune into the narrative. I couldn’t tell my fox spirits apart. This is a major problem with Asian culture and the Asian diaspora, as understood in the West; unless you’re a scholar, all of the cultures become Asian. No Japanese, no Chinese, no Korean, not Taiwanese, just Asian. Granted, it’s up to us to investigate and gain clarity, but the with the all and nothingness of Asian culture, as it is presented in media, it makes it difficult. 

I first thought about this with Star Trek. As a lifelong fan, I have to fully agree with Kyu Hyun’s assessment that Trek has tokenized not only Asian people (despite George Takei’s Sulu being a revolutionary character, for his time) but Asian cultures as well. The Vulcans and the Romulans seemed to occupy Asian allegorical space, seen through the lens of ill-informed exoticism. Years later, Joss Whedon’s Firefly was not only more glaring and grating than Trek, but more blatantly offensive. The entire show mythology was that there are two cultural cores: One Western and one “Pan-Asian.” The show is peppered with a kind of Chinese-language pidgin, bland and generic Asian characters, symbols, modes of dress—but the show is essentially Space Confederates cosplaying Asian (no particular Asian, ostensibly Chinese, but never firmly verified) but with no Asians of note in the series’ thirteen episode run.

This is the everything and no-thingness I mentioned. The idea and cultural trappings of an Asian society is all around, but Asian people are thoroughly erased. This is why I felt “Meet me in Daegu” was so powerful. 

Outside of M.A.S.H. and the Phillip Rhee starring martial arts film franchise, Best of the Best, I never encountered too much of anything that related to Korea. I had a Korean friend in high school, Myung, but we could only be friends at school because I was Black (American) and his parents would not allow me in his home. After seeing what Korean’s went through during the Fatherland Liberation War/Six-Two-Five depicted in LC, seeing Atticus casually murder and instill fear—and then pine after Ji-Ah—I could understand (not justify) their not wanting me for company. I had two Black Korean war veterans I knew watch this episode and asked them to tell me what they thought about Atticus’ scenes. One refused to tell me anything and the other, through what I interpreted as tears on the telephone, told me that those scenes were mild. It gave my more insight into Myung’s family’s experience. 

Lovecraft Country humanized the Koreans living under occupation and illustrated the ‘just doing my job’ cruelty space American soldiers occupied—something most people in the U.S. are wholly unfamiliar with. We’ve been told North Korea is an oppressive state with wacky leaders and South Korea is a hub of technology and boy/girl band factory. That’s it. But being introduced to a more accurate portrayal of Korean life under wartime conditions, and getting a glimpse of Korean folk/mythic life forces us to see just how much heavy-lifting “Meet Me in Daegu” tried to do and how much further the image industry has to go.] 

Kye Hyun Kim: Thank you so much, Shawn, for a wonderful, super-stimulating and deeply moving response to what I have written. The passage about your conversations with the old African-American veterans of the Cold War was so powerful that I had to literally get up from my seat and pace around the room for some minutes before I could sit down again. So many things went through my mind, including the very real specter of Korean racism-- a people as fiercely nationalistic and ethnocentric as any in the world-- toward the people of color, specifically against the mixed-blood children fathered during the Korean War. Your comments gave me a renewed appreciation of just how far the creators of Lovecraft Country did push the envelope in terms of destabilizing the accepted imageries of Asians and Koreans in the American media.

Kyu Hyun Kim, Associate Professor History at University of California-Davis, was born in Seoul, Korea. He received his Ph.D. in history and East Asian languages in 1997 from Harvard University. He was a postdoctoral fellow at the Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University (1996-1997), served a Japan Society for Promotion of Science Fellowship, and was nominated and sponsored in the United States by the Japan Advisory Board, Social Science Research Council in 2000. He is the author of the forthcoming book, Treasonous Patriots: Collaboration and the Colonial Modernity in Modern Korean History and Culture.

Shawn Taylor is one of the founders of Nerds of Color and a founding organizer of the Black Comix Arts Festival, a festival that highlights and promotes artists on the margins of the mainstream comic book industry. Shawn recently published a white paper, We The Fans: How Our Powers Can Change the World, as a Senior Fellow for the Pop Culture Collaborative.

Race, Identity and Memory in Lovecraft Country: A Conversation (Part One)

Over the next two installments, I will continue my focus on some of the most discussed television dramas of 2020 with a conversation between Kyu Hyun Kim (a historian of South Korean politics and culture) and Shawn Taylor (one of the founders of Nerds of Color), about Lovecraft Country. These two writers explore the ways this remarkable series broke with earlier representations of Koreans and African-Americans in the horror and fantasy genre. My own sense was that the series took swing for the fences risks that sometimes paid off and sometimes didn’t, but that it was crammed full of provocative ideas that will shape my thinking for sometime to come. In some ways, it was more successful at the level of individual episodes, which made provocative interventions in a range of horror subgenres, rather than at the level of the serial, which was a bit incoherent up till the end and opened much that it failed to resolve. But we don’t need to see a series as perfect to find it sparks conversation as this and the next blog post illustrate.

Kyu Hyun Kim: Some parts of HBO’s Lovecraft Country has left me breathlessly excited and well-nigh speechless due to its sheer political audacity as well as pleasures derived from its crazy blending of different subgenres and styles— Afro-futurism, Gothic horror conventions, film noir— even when the cake mix sometimes does not quite rise as expected. Other parts of the series— thankfully minor in proportion— turned out ultimately disappointing for various reasons: the rather listless denouement rehabilitating that hoary cliché of a Christian patriarch sacrificing himself for the community, a non-resolution of the relationship between Ruby and Christina, for my money the most intriguing couple in the whole series, the curiously lackadaisical depictions of Lovecraftian monsters (is that multi-ocular, many-toothed thing supposed to be… Shoggoth?) and so on. In the end, though, I have little problem praising historical awareness, innovative approach and genre-savvy chutzpah of the showrunner Misha Green, who wrote the majority of episodes as well. 

For me, a South Korean genre enthusiast as well as a teacher of Korean culture and history, the big “uh-oh” moment arrived when the series segued into Episode Six, “Meet Me in Daegu,” devoted to the unspooling of the backstory between the protagonist Atticus (Jonathan Majors) and the Korean nurse Ji-ah (Jaimie Chung), during the Korean War. The images of idiotically grinning Asian men clad in loose pants and cotton jackets from M. A. S. H. and other too-awful-to-mention “representations of Koreans in American TV” passed through my head, but only for a moment. I told myself, OK, this is 2020. A South Korean film won the Best Picture Oscar only a few months ago, for God’s sake. I probably will not see a degrading Korean character speaking in pidgin English (unless such a speech pattern was integral to that character). I also probably will not see a generic Oriental landscape and 19th century Chinese houses standing in for Daegu, one of the major cities in South Korea and its very name fraught with historical and cultural implications, as “Chicago” or “New Orleans” would be for Americans. I also admit that I was intrigued to find out how Ji-ah as a Korean woman, living in ‘50s during the height of Cold War no less, would be portrayed. Would she disappointingly turn out to be just another token Asian presence, in the way multiple iterations of (with apologies to some Trekker friends I admire and respect) Star Trek have always treated “real” Asians (rather than Vulcans and Romulans “standing in” for Asians)? 

The verdict: it was significantly better than I expected. Not that the show got all period, historical and cultural details right: of course not. But overall, the episode was ambitious in the right ways and obviously trying to break new grounds, some of them in relation to depictions of East Asian cultures in the American TV, others in terms of recognizing with clear eyes the presence of US imperialism and horrible treatment of women by the hyper-masculine state (war regimes) in both Korea and the US. This adventurous attitude was in all honesty far better than being timidly "safe" by the contemporary standards of identity politics. 

And I was right: approximately sixty percent or so of the dialogue was in Korean. Of course, it would have been really great, and instantly impressed many Korean viewers, had Green and others paid a bit more attention to the Korean language and got Ji-ah and her mother to speak in Daegu dialect. Moreover, the episode in my opinion also displayed some evidence of the production crew or writers having studied the Korean horror and dark fantasy of the past two decades. The kumiho (nine-tailed fox) myth is probably one of the most frequently exploited subject matter for Korean horror/dark fantasy genre, and the Lovecraft Country team manages to mine its subtext of gender politics, an approach very much in tune with the evolution of the myth in New Korean Cinema as well as South Korean TV dramas. A bit head-scratching part was depicting the “nine tails” of Ji-ah the werefox as disgusting tentacular organs snaking out of various orifices of her body: a smart student of mine opined that this was perhaps influenced by the “tentacular” obsessions of some adult-oriented Japanese anime, which has little to do with the Korean myth. 

More importantly, the episode was critically reflective about American Cold War imperialism in the way that I have seldom seen in stateside productions. For some American viewers, hopefully it would have been jarring to see the hero Atticus presented as a cold-blooded torturer and executioner "just doing his job," then turn all gooey-romantic to trying to woo Ji-ah. In the similar vein, I was most impressed by the character of Young-ja, a Communist-sympathetic nurse (an excellent performance by Prisca Kim). Her character, morally sensitive and empathetic but also endowed with certain levels of urban sophistication, is very much the kind we would see in recent, notable works of New Korean Cinema dealing with the Korean War or North Korea (such as The Frontline [2011], Swing Kids [2018], The Spy Gone North [2018]) that have managed to humanize North Korean “enemies.” 

The production design was lavish and gorgeous, which is not to say there were no moments that reminded me of a ‘50s black-and-white Samuel Fuller war flick set in the Korean peninsula. Some of the flubs are probably difficult to notice unless you have actually lived in the country proximate to the era depicted. For instance, the Korean subtitles for American movies playing in movie theaters, used to appear vertically, not horizontally, as shown in the episode and today’s Korea. The costumes and sets sometimes have that slightly off-kilter, prefab vibes that might well have been an intended effect. By the way, I did not mind making Ji-ah a fan of Hollywood musicals, especially of Judy Garland. Some Korean viewers might object. It is, I would argue, clearly not a shallow infatuation with a slick American consumerist culture on her part. For this particular point, I hope that South Koreans of today try to recognize the unimaginable allure that old Hollywood could claim for their parents and grandparents.

Ironically, one of the most obvious cliches in the episode was the Korean-American character, Atticus’s buddy, who gives a neat position speech about how he is caught between two (racist) nations and rejected by both sides: these characters often function as an alibi for racial sensitivity on the part of the producers. If Green and others were serious about anti-Asian racism, they should have included the more overt racist treatment of “gooks” by American soldiers. 

Nitpickings aside, I enjoyed the episode (and the whole series) despite its flaws and disappointments. Things have improved much by 2020 but also much remains the same: witness the debacle of Disney sinking hundreds of millions of dollars into making the nauseatingly culturally-and-politically obtuse Mulan, the very raison d’etre of which is egregious pandering to the PRC market and state. I definitely appreciate Green et al.’s boundary-busting gutsiness in Lovecraft Country, which I believe is the greatest strength of the whole episode and the series.

Shawn Taylor: Based on the 2016 novel by Matt Ruff, Lovecraft Country is a television milestone in so many ways. It’s the first horror tv show starring an almost all Black cast that is focused on multiple Black characters, each of the characters have some agency, some stake in the story and all of it wrapped in a prestige television format. This alone should be enough to put it in the running for GOAT status.

But why Lovecraft? How could a virulent racist’s work be used to tell the story of Black folks in the height of the 1950s Jim Crow era United States? While I’m fully on board with the program, there isn’t too much “Lovecraftian Horror” in Lovecraft Country. To be Black in the US, especially before the Civil Rights Movement was in full swing, was to be afraid most of the time. You go to the wrong town, the wrong restaurant, the wrong store and you could be assaulted, assaulted and jailed, or killed. No help would be available. You were completely and utterly on your own. The universe didn’t give one shit about you. I guess the whole ‘uncaring, disinterested universe’ is a Lovecraftian trope. I’ll concede this point. 

The cosmic horror of the Lovecraftian Mythos cannot even hold a candle to the cloak of fear Black folks wore, say, driving from down south up to Chicago, or from Chicago to New England. The quintessentially American activity of the cross-country road trip, something white folks enjoyed as a matter of course, is the starting point of one long episode of hypervigilance, terror, and anxiety for Black folks. So, then, why did Atticus, Letitia, and Uncle George make so many of those trips? Their motivation is why I absolutely fell in love with this show, despite its flaws and glaring plot-holes. 

Running parallel with the horror and magic and swashbuckling adventure that our protagonists were enveloped in were two things rarely afforded Black folks in television and film, especially in the more fantastic genres: intelligence and curiosity. Of course, there have been intelligent Black characters on big and small screen science fiction/horror/fantasy, but rarely are they complete beings. They usually get reduced to being nothing more than exposition drops that spur the main characters to action, or their intelligence is played for comic relief. Lovecraft Country gives us an entirely no presentation of the smart Black character.

I was privy to a preview screening of the first five episodes. After the fifth episode, those in my viewing pod immediately entered into a text conversation about how each and every Black character was smart. Like, really smart. It only got better with the remainder of the series. And it wasn’t like so many other shows where intelligence, especially for Black people, is coded as some kind of disability or impediment (awkward, dispassionate, distant)—or linked to same (See Geordi La Forge from Star Trek: The Next Generation or Dr. Miles Hawkins from M.A.N.T.I.S.). In Lovecraft Country, every Black character, man or woman; gay or straight; old or young; male or female possessed both a keen intelligence and a restless curiosity. And the thing that struck all of us was that there was no explanation for it. 

Unlike Charles Gunn who underwent a procedure to enhance his knowledge of the law and improve how he spoke (aka make him more appealing to white people) in Joss Whedon’s, Angel, the Black venturers of Lovecraft Country were organic intellectuals—we see you Gramsci and Friere. There was no talk of schools or schooling, only literature as an entry point for Atticus, his Uncle George, and his father Montrose; science for Uncle George’s wife, Hippolyta and science and art for their daughter, Diana (not so coincidently the names of Wonder Woman and her mother), and art for Letitia and her sister, Ruby. That they all were able to draw from their respective intellectual bases and curiosities to confront the creeping horror, while engaging in transdisciplinary problem solving, elevated Lovecraft Country above the schlock horror it could have devolved into. 

As a lifelong fan of the fantastic (we see you, Todorov) and the speculative, I have been routinely disappointed by how Black people and Blackness has been portrayed in the genres that fall under these. Blackness is either coded or blatantly offered as evil, or less than, or something that needs to be banished or abolished. What Lovecraft Country does, the reparative work it did, was to give the Black venturers agency in a genre that excludes or dispatches Black people on a regular basis. Not only do the Black protagonists have agency, Black culture, Black folks life is presented not as something other than the norm, but as something loving and mainstream, despite the forces allied against it. 

Lovecraft Country provided us with a Black culture that was tender, affectionate, and a source of strength for the characters. It was a culture that was able to produce intellectuals, curiosity seekers who, through their willingness to engage and utilize knowledge, without bias, were able to save their world and give us ten or so hours of damn fine television. 

Kyu Hyun Kim, Associate Professor History at University of California-Davis, was born in Seoul, Korea. He received his Ph.D. in history and East Asian languages in 1997 from Harvard University. He was a postdoctoral fellow at the Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University (1996-1997), served a Japan Society for Promotion of Science Fellowship, and was nominated and sponsored in the United States by the Japan Advisory Board, Social Science Research Council in 2000. He is the author of the forthcoming book, Treasonous Patriots: Collaboration and the Colonial Modernity in Modern Korean History and Culture.

Shawn Taylor is one of the founders of Nerds of Color and a founding organizer of the Black Comix Arts Festival, a festival that highlights and promotes artists on the margins of the mainstream comic book industry. Shawn recently published a white paper, We The Fans: How Our Powers Can Change the World, as a Senior Fellow for the Pop Culture Collaborative.

Back to School: Living Newspapers, Transmedia Operas, and Other Hybrid Media

Yesterday, I shared the syllabus for my PhD seminar, Science Fiction AS Media Theory. Today, I am sharing the syllabus for a class I am co-teaching with a longtime friend and a colleague from the Specialized Journalism Program, Sasha Anawalt. This is going to be Sasha’s last class, since she is retiring, and so we wanted it to be a blow-out, one which stretched both of us (and our students) to think about arts and culture in new ways, especially in the context of the Pandemic, social distancing, Zoom teaching, etc. So, we tapped our respective networks to host a series of conversations with artists, critics, scholars, activists, who are exploring new relations between high and low, between media and everyday life. Our assignments tap the past — living newspapers, Cornell boxes — and the future — speculative journalism. Students are challenged to process the material in conversation with each other through dialogic writing. And there’s a recurring focus on speculative fiction as a set of tools that will allow us to think differently about our current conditions and future possibilities. The students will be early and mid career arts and culture journalisms who are returning for a masters to retool and deepen their thinking. i should note that my syllabi normally list the readings under the topic of the day where-as here, we are listing the readings first and the topic

JOUR 593: Arts Criticism and Commentary

3 units

Spring 2021 – Wednesdays – 2-4:30 p.m.

Instructors: Sasha Anawalt; Henry Jenki

Course Description

Living Newspapers, Transmedia Operas, and Other Hybrid Media Forms

This course looks to the future, asking how we might imagine the world of arts and culture journalism post-COVID-19 pandemic. New forms of expression have emerged during lockdown. Cinema has dimmed its bright lights so that fainter forms of participatory media, such as Twitch or podcasts, have gained greater visibility. Television has lowered technical standards so that international media producers can compete more fully in their marketplace. And fans are restaging their favorite amusement park rides for each other via YouTube as a response to the shutting down of Disneyland for the better part of a year. Virtual choirs of a hundred people sing across the continents from their separate living rooms to your screen. Museums and galleries open “pop-up” shows for fistfuls of viewers at a time. Opera takes place in parking lots with the audience in their cars. Nothing is the same. The relationship between audience and artist is forever changed. The current moment is characterized by the blurring of boundaries between high and low, between different media forms, between different cultural practices. It is further informed by BLM, #MeToo, and the presidential election. 

How might journalists expand their repertoire to incorporate new modes of criticism and reporting which themselves reflect a broader range of media affordances? And how might we understand this cultural churn in relation to earlier moments in the history of arts and entertainment? We will grapple with these questions through conversations with leading creators and thinkers from across the art and entertainment worlds. Guests will range from Disney Imagineers, comic book artists, fan activists, virtual reality producers, and science fiction writers to photographers, assemblage artists, architects, and opera producers, not to mention distinguished arts and culture journalists, who will weigh in and help us explore alternatives such as living newspapers, transmedia opera, and other hybrid forms. Through assignments that include dialogic writing, live performances, and hands-on creative projects, students with work together to produce new journalism possibilities that ideally rise to meet the current cultural moment and move it forward.

 Student Learning Outcomes

·       Learning about influential thinkers and critics in the humanist tradition through classic and contemporary texts, podcasts, and videos – as well as from in-person lectures;

·       Questioning conventional ideas of effective communication and media through DIY collaborative and individual journalism projects;

·       Producing one “living newspaper” team project that exercises and tests the relations between politics and culture;

·       Discovering how connected everything is, and making this manifest through an immersive Joseph Cornell box;

·       Writing on a weekly basis to reinforce the writing habit in a dialogic Blackboard journal;

·       Publishing on Ampersand or other media outlets;

·       Solidifying ideas about your future and the confluence of high and low art, hybrid media, and the ways your journalism can be realized and possibly affect change.

Course Notes

This class will be a combination of lecture/discussion and production workshopping, leaning toward the former with a roster of guests from many arts-related disciplines.We will be talking a lot across the term about fan engagement and participation, and that will require you to talk about what is meaningful to you and be active in most conversations. Come prepared, having done the readings, and open to mentoring one another. You will each introduce at least one speaker.

This course takes place online through Zoom with multimedia and technology-enhanced elements as a likely accompaniment to many of the lectures. The materials will be made available on Blackboard, as will all the reading assignments in a PDF format or via links to e-books and articles.You are responsible for paying attention to the emails we send, and responding in a timely fashion. Likewise, we will respond to yours certainly within 48 hours. If you do not hear from either of us, by all means give us a tap. 

Required Readings and Supplementary Materials

You are required to have the graphic novel adaptation, by Damian Duffy and John Jennings, of Octavia E. Butler’s “Parable of the Sower” (2020), Abrams ComicArts, New York, (ISBN 978-1-4197-3133-4), (265 pages). $25.

We recommend you have:

·      bell hooks, Art on My Mind: Visual Politics, (The New Press, New York, 1995)

·      Henry Jenkins, Comics and Stuff(New York; New York University Press, 2020)

These can be purchased through the USC Bookstore, Amazon, or Bookshop.org.In addition, the USC Library may be able to lend you a copy of Art on My Mindor Comics and Stuff.

All of our other reading materials will be made available to you in PDF form or as links. These will be posted on Blackboard and incorporated in the weekly assignment sheets “handed out” in class via email. Most are in this syllabus under Course Schedule.

Description and Assessment of Assignments 

There are two main projects that you will simultaneously develop and execute over the course of the semester. one of them – which we’re calling “the Joseph Cornell Box” – culminates as a presentation during finals week, in place of a final exam. It is a solo assignment that effectively looks inward. The other, which we will refer to as the Living Newspaper Project, is a group project that looks outward. Both projects are described here in brief, and you can expect fuller details and explanations in class. Both will be graded with a rubric providing a numerical grade that is translated into a letter grade. 

In addition, you will engage in a weekly Dialogic Writing journal exercise on Blackboard, where you and a partner will discuss the class and readings and whatever comes to mind throughout the week (not just in one push right before class). These will be graded at the end of the course. For each missing journal entry, deduct half a letter grade (A becomes A-, etc.) for this specific element of your graded coursework.

CORNELL BOX– The Indo-European root of the word “art” is “to arrange” or “to fit together” (join). This assignment is additive. It begins the first day of class, when you bring in a memory object or what the museum curator and author Nina Simon calls a “social object.”  It’s an object that has a narrative. Its meaning is known to you, and part of this semester-long assignment’s objective is for you to make it have meaning to others. To set it within the context of other objects that you will gather and by “joining” and “arranging” them inside of a box, you will create a world that provokes the viewer to find connections between these objects and create meaning. Worth 20 percent of your final grade.

LIVING NEWSPAPER – This assignment is for a collaborative project, probably in trios or pairs. The objective is to develop a Living Newspaper, which means figuring out a topic or theme that is relevant and of mutual interest. (This could involve improvisation.) It looks to the future. And it must be based on well-reported facts, data, and history. Early on, you will pitch two ideas in 250 words or less. Expect to present one in class. Your theme or topic must relate to the arts or culture, high or low, hybrid or popular, and be about the implications of such social issues as #BLM, anti-racism, #MeToo, diversity and equity in the newsroom, the COVID-19 pandemic, immigration, education, natural resources, the environment, and/or climate change. Your aim is to bring about changes in social behavior and attitudes that could possibly affect the media as a real business and discipline. You will determine the form your Living Newspaper takes. It can be a play, video, dance, stand-up comedy act, comic strip, a 3-D sculpture, or a piece of visual art – it could be on the intersections of food and architecture and an opera chorus. In other words, you are to experiment with form and content, encouraging people to think about the news, using active technologies and materials. Ultimately, you will present this work with your team to the class, in conjunction with a 1,250-word essay authored by you. The essay should provide a critical analysis and understanding of your Living Newspaper. Explain your choices and the background of the work you did as a team. What was your premise? Your thesis? Your objective? Your research? Your process? Finally, why do you think your project will move the needle on social policy and behavior? On the art and artists? On American media? Worth 30 percent of your final grade.

DIALOGIC WRITING– Culture, both high and low, seeks to provoke conversation with a public, but cultural journalism is too often framed as a monologue. This semester, we want students to experiment with collaborative or dialogic forms of writing. You will be assigned a partner at the start of the term (someone who will bring a significantly different background and perspective from your own). Across the term, you will write a weekly series of conversational pieces where the two of you dig into issues which have been raised for you by the course materials, conversations, and experiences, but which will also draw on your own observations about forms of cultural expression in the world around you. These are not crossfire posts; your goal is to explore your differences but also to search for common ground. Each installment should be roughly 1,500 words (i.e. 750-1k words per contributor) and should include more than one round of back and forth exchanges. One of the exchanges must be the speculative journalism project described below which will count for 5 percent of the total for the dialogic writing grade.

SPECULATIVE JOURNALISMmay mean many things, including journalists writing science fiction as a way of exploring what they have learned about how alternative futures might play out. Here, we are using the term to build on the work of the Civic Imagination Project.You will be asked to participate in a world-making workshop conducted by the Civic Imagination team as participants brainstorm their ideal future society of 2060. You are then going to take some of the ideas generated by the workshop and trace down what's happening now which might pave the way for such a future society. This approach combines speculative journalism with citizen-led reporting. We ask that you write a 1,000-word piece on your Dialogic Writing journals, which shares the result of this experiment. Your focus should be on the future of arts and entertainment in world this community imagined. Worth 20 percent of your final grade.

In addition, students will also participate through:

1.    Introducing speaker(s)

2.    One 1:1 meeting with your professor(s)

COURSE SCHEDULE: A WEEKLY BREAKDOWN

Assignment Before the First Day ofClass

Read (in this order, and available in PDF): 

·      Raymond Williams, “Culture is Ordinary,” Resources of Hope: Culture, Democracy and Socialism(1958)

·      Henry Jenkins, “Henry Jenkins on John Fiske,” Exploring the Roots of Digital and Media Literacy through Personal Narrative (2016)

·      Sasha Anawalt, “Introduction,” The Joffrey Ballet: Robert Joffrey and the Making of an American Dance Company(1996)

·      Henry Jenkins and Angela Ndalianis, “On Multisensory and Transmedia Stories,” Journal of Media Literacy(forthcoming)

In addition, choose a memory object to share in the first class.  

Important note to students: Be advised that this syllabus is subject to change - and probably will change - based on the progress of the class, news events, and/or guest speaker availability. 

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 20TH  

Week 1: Introduction

Assignment:In addition to Joe Rohde’s suggestions (TK), 

Read: 

·      This syllabus and sign it

·      Theodore Gioia, “The Great Reformatting,” The American Scholar(2020)

·      "Hero’s Journey,” Wikipedia

·      Excerpts from Mary Ann Caws (ed.), Joseph Cornell’s Theater of the Mind:Selected Diaries, Letters and Files(2000) 

Watch:

·      Art Spiegelman and Pilobolus Ballet, Hapless Hooligan In Still Moving

·      Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers on Star Wars

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1000 words 

WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 27TH

Week 2: Creativity, Collaboration, Innovation, and Hybridity

Speaker:

·       Joe Rohde

Assignment: 

Read:

·       Brief excerpts from Cory Doctorow’s  “Unauthorized Bread” from Radicalized(2019)

·       Brief excerpts from Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Windup Girl (2010)

·       Three excerpts from Daniel Miller’s The Comfort of Things (2009)

·       Excerpt from Henry Jenkins’ Comics and Stuff (2020)

·       Alexander B. Joy, “Candyland Was Invented for Polio Wards,” The Atlantic.

·       "Mr. Rohde's Wild Ride" https://www.oxy.edu/magazine/summer-2017/mr-rohdes-wild-ride

·       A World-Maker Retires https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2021-01-07/joe-rohde-the-exit-interview

Explore:

·       The Atlantic’s “Object Lessons” 

·       Dominique Moody’s website

·       LA Library, 21 Collections -- Every Object Has a Story

Listen:

·       Kitchen Sisters,“21 Collections -- Every Object Has a Story” 

Write:

·       Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 3RD

Week 3: Workshop and Material Culture: Things and...Stuff

Speakers: 

·       Dominique Moody and Cory Doctorow 

Assignments: In addition to suggestions from Yuval Sharon (TK),

Read:

·       Sharon Quinn, “Cradle Will Rock,” TheFurious Improvisation: How the WPA and a Cast of Thousands Made High Art Out of Desperate Times (2008)

·        “Orson Welles’ Voodoo Macbeth: A Forgotten Diversity Landmark,” BBC4 Front Row(2018)

·       P. J. Grisar, “Before the Trump-Inspired Julius Caesar, There was Orson Welles’s Anti-Fascist Staging,” Hyperallergic(2017)

Watch: 

·       Trailer of The Industry’s “Sweetland”(Yuval Sharon)

·       “The Cradle Will Rock” (full film, so we can point to specific passages)

“What the Constitution Means to Me” (On Amazon Prime) (Anyone who does not have Amazon Prime is exempt from watching this.)

·        

·       “Twilight Los Angeles” 

·       “Nixon in China” (Excerpt)

·       “Nixon in China” (Trailer)

·       “Rodney King” (Trailer) 

·       “Between the World and Me” (Trailer)

·       John Outterbridge https://youtu.be/QY9cV_-tnAE

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words 

Prepare:

·      Show ‘n’ tell your Cornell box

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 10TH

Week 4: Living Newspapers and Transmedia Opera 

Speakers:

·       Yuval Sharon and TBD

Assignments: 

Read:

·       Alice Kimm, “Public Space in the Age of Covid-19” (2019)

·       Jason Hartman, “Homes of the Future:Now You Can Talk to Your Home From a Distance, with Alice Kim of JFAK,” Authority(2020)

·       bell hooks, “Black Vernacular: Architecture as Cultural Practice,” Art on My Mind(1995)

·       Carolina A. Miranda, “The Last (Porn) Picture Shows: Once Dotted with Dozens of Adult Cinemas, LA Now Has Two,” LA Times (2017)

·       Caroline A. Miranda, “Parler’s Vibe is MAGA-Red and Unreal,”LA Times (2020)

·       Caroline A. Miranda, “Essential Arts: It’s Time to Redesign the Electoral Map,” LA Times(2020)

·       Caroline A. Miranda, “Say Goodbye, Guy on Horse,” LA Times(2020)

·      Susan Sontag, Intro, Chapters 1 and 9, Illness as Metaphor (2001)

·      David Craig, “Pandemic and Its Metaphors: Sontag Revisited in the Covid-19 Era,” European Journal of Cultural Studies(2020) 

Listen:

·       Nicola Twilley and Geoff Manaugh, “The Architecture of Quarantine,” Architect

Watch: 

·      MC Lars, “The Hip Hop of Shakespeare,” TEDx USC

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

·      Two pitches of 250 words each for your Living Newspaper

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 17TH

Week 5: COVID-19, Quarantine Culture, and The Future Spaces of Los Angeles

Speakers:

·       Alice Kimm, John Friedman, Carolina A. Miranda and Nicola Twilley 

Assignments: 

Read: 

·      Sangita Shresthova, “Introduction,” Practicing Futures: A Civic Imagination Handbook(2020)

·      Eryn Carlson, “Speculative Journalism Can Prepare Us for What Comes. Can It Also Promote Misinformation?,” Nieman Reports(2020) 

·      Buckminster Fuller, Introduction by Jaime Snyder and Chapter 1, Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth (1969)

·      Aja Romano, “Hopepunk, the Latest Storytelling Trend, Is All About Weaponizing Optimism,”Vox(2018)

·      Aja Romano, “Janelle Monae’s Body of Work Is a Masterpiece of Modern Science Fiction,”Vox (2018)

·      Annalee Newitz, “The Elites Were Living High, Then Came the Fall,”The New York Times

·      Annalee Newitz, “What Unearthing Ancient Cities Teaches Us About Expoloring Outer Space,”Popular Science

·      Annalee Newitz, “Inside Meow Wolf, The Amusement Park For People Who Want a Weirder Disneyland,”Ars Technica

·      Annalee Newitz, “How to Write a Novel Set More than 125 Years in the Future,”Slate 

·      Annalee Newitz, “Robots Need Civil Rights, Too,”Boston Globe

·      Start readingJohn Jennings and Damian Duffy, The Parable of the Sower: A Graphic Novel Adaptation (2020)

Explore/Read:

·      Doug McLennan’s Diacriticalblog 

Watch:

·       The Infiltrators(trailer)

·       Alex Rivera on his film, The Infiltrators

·       Sleep Merchants(trailer) 

Listen:

·       Imaginary Worlds: “Solarpunk The Future”

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 24TH

Week 6: Speculative Journalism

Speakers:

Sangita Shresthova, Doug McLennan and Annilee Newitz

Assignments:

Read:

·      bell hooks, “Beauty Laid Bare: Aesthetics in the Ordinary,” Art on My Mind(1995)

·      continue reading John Jennings and Damian Duffy, The Parable of the Sower: A Graphic Novel Adaptation (2020)

Attend:

·       The Civic Imagination Workshop on March 2, 12:30-2 (Zoom) 

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words 

Prepare:

·      Show ‘n’ tell your Cornell box and your Living Newspaper project

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 3RD

Week 7: Workshop: Cornell Box, Living Newspaper, Improvisation, and Review 

Assignments:

Read: 

·       Finish readingJohn Jennings and Damian Duffy, The Parable of the Sower: A Graphic Novel Adaptation(2020)

·        Lynell George, Chapters 2, 6, 8, A Handful of Earth, a Handful of Sky: The World of Octavia Butler (2020)

·       Octavia E. Butler, “Speech Sounds”(1983) 

Explore:

·       Ayana Jaimeson’s website for OEB Legacy Network

Watch: 

·       Parable of the Soweropera trailer

·       Tyree Boyd-Pates and Shamell Bell, “Dance Activism and Black Lives Matter,” Movement/Matters

Write:

·       Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1000 words (This one must be about the Civic Imagination Workshop.)

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 10TH

Week 8 Octavia E. Butler

Speakers:

·       John Jennings and Damian Duffy 

·       Lynell George, Dr. Shamell Bell, and Ayana Jaimeson 

Assignments: 

Read: 

·       Rebecca Onion, “Reclaiming the Machine: An Introductory Look at Steampunk in Everyday Practice,” Journal of Neo-Victorian Studies(2008)

·       James Ring Adam, “Native Authors Invade Sci-Fi: Indigenous Writers Are Reshaping Speculative Fiction,” American Indian(2019)

·       Layla Leiman, “Afrofuturism Artists to Watch Out For,” Between 10 and 5(2019) 

·       Bruce Sterling, “Preface,”Mirrorshades: A Cyberpunk Anthology(1986).

Listen:

·       N. K. Jemisin on The Ezra Klein Show

Watch:

·       Cyberpunk 2077game trailer

·       Jingle Jangletrailer

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words 

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 17TH

Week 9: The Worlds of Speculative Fiction: Solarpunk, Steampunk, Cyberpunk, Afrofuturism, Native Futurism, Chicano Futurism

Speakers:

·       Shawn Taylor, Grace Dillan, and Curtis Marez 

·       Living Newspapers and Cornell Boxes workshop 

Assignments: 

Read:

·       Ann Pendleton-Jillian and John Seely Brown, ‘Worldbuilding”, Design Unbound: Designing for Emergence in a White Water World, Volume 2: Ecologies of Change (2018)

·       Lisa Pon, “Raphael 2020,” Norton Simon Museum(Start at 17:00)

·       “How Nonny de La Pena, The ‘Godmother of VR’, Is Changing the Mediascape,” Wall Street Journal(2018) 

Watch: 

·      Game of Thrones transmedia campaign

Write:

·       Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 24TH

Week 10: Hybrid Media, Immersive Entertainment

Speakers:

·       Ann Pendleton-Julian, Lisa Pon, and Nonny de la Pena  

Assignments: 

Read: 

·      Abigail De Kosnik, “Relationship Nations: Phillipines/US Fan Art and Fan Fiction,” Transformative Works and Cultures(2019)

·      Paromita Gupta, “A Conversation with Terry Marshall (Intelligent Mischief/Wakanda Dream Lab)” Confessions of an Aca-Fan(2019)

·      Henry Jenkins, Mimi Ito, and danah boyd, “Gaps and Genres of Participation” Participatory Culture in a Networked Era (2015)

Write:

·      Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

Prepare:

·      Show ‘n’ tell your Cornell box and Living Newspaper

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 31ST

Week 11: Workshop: Fandom, and Participatory Culture 

Speakers:

·       Abigail De Kosnik and Terry Marshall 

·       Living Newspapers and Cornell Boxes Workshop 

Assignments:

Read:

·       Caty Borum Chattoo, “‘It’s Like Taking Your Vodka with a Chaser’: Creativity and Comedy for Social Justice in the Participatory Media Age,” “‘Maybe They Think Beauty Can’t Come from Here’: Resilience and Power in the Climate Crisis,” The Revolution Will Be Hilarious: Creativity, Comedy and Civic Power (forthcoming)

·       An Xiao Mina, chapter 1, 5.1, From Memes to Movements: How the World’s Most Viral Media is Changing Social Protest and Power (2019) 

Write:

·       Dialogic Collaborative Journal, 1,000 words

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 7TH

Week 12: NO CLASS (wellness day)

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 14TH

Week 13: Activism in the Age of Participatory Culture; Workshop

Speakers:

·       An Xiao Mina and Caty Baroom Chattou 

Assignments:

·       Work on your Living Newspaper Project (half the class presents next week, with former guest speakers returning, and half the week after that, with more invited guests).

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 21ST

Week 14: Presentation and Evaluations

Assignments:

·       Work on your Living Newspaper Project 

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 28TH

Week 15: Presentations 

MONDAY, MAY 10TH, 2-4 p.m.

Final Exam: Presentation of Joseph Cornell Box

ABOUT YOUR INSTRUCTORS

Sasha Anawalt

I had my first newspaper when I was ten years old with my best friend. It was calledThe Chocolate Newsand, mostly, we wrote about Mean Mr. Vanilla. In college, I started the first arts news weekly magazine for the McGill Dailyin Montreal, which is still published to this day. Turns out, I like starting things. When I moved to Los Angeles, I became the first chief dance critic at the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner. I wrote a book about the Joffrey Ballet. A best-seller, it was turned into a documentary feature film that aired on PBS American Mastersin 2013. Between these gigs, I had three children and helmed the weekly radio spot on KCRW for dance criticism, called “Dance Notes.” I was also the first dance critic for the L.A. Weekly. I served on the Pulitzer Prize committee jury for criticism for two years, and, one of those years, Jonathan Gold won for his restaurant criticism. Determined to help put L.A. on the so-called cultural map, I was by good fortune given the chance to create and lead the USC Annenberg/Getty Arts Journalism Fellowship Program for 13 years and the NEA Institute for Theater and Musical Theater for USC Annenberg for seven. These snowballed into being asked to help build the first Master’s degree program in Specialized Journalism (the Arts) at USC Annenberg. Now, I am a full professor of professional practice and am working on launching a new Master’s program for the school in 2021 that is all about Food Culture Journalism. I was born in New York City.

Henry Jenkins

Henry Jenkins is the Provost's Professor of Communication, Journalism, Cinematic Arts and Education at the University of Southern California and the founder and former co-director of the MIT Comparative Media Studies Program. He is the author or editor of 20 books on various aspects of media and popular culture, including Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture, Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide, Spreadable Media: Creating Meaning and Value in a Networked Culture (with Sam Ford and Joshua Green), and By Any Media Necessary: The New Youth Activism (with Sangita Shresthova and others). He has two more books that just came out this spring -- Popular Culture and the Civic Imagination: Case Studies of Creative Social Change and Comics and Stuff. He is the co-host of the How Do You Like It So Far? podcast, which explores popular culture in a changing world and has run the Confessions of an Aca-Fan blog for more than 15 years.

Back to School: Science Fiction as Media Theory

This term, I am spending much of my time focused on speculative fiction. In part, this is because the work I have been doing on the Civic Imagination has left me working through core concepts from the realm of speculative fiction — especially the ways world-building has taken on a bigger role in social change movements but also because as we start to imagine life after the pandemic, a focus on alternative futures seems more urgent than ever. I have returned to a course I have only taught once before — Science Fiction as Media Theory — which encourages students to think creatively about the work theory does, who does theory, and how it operates in different contexts. While there are other versions of the class out there, I have updated it so much since 2011 when I taught it last that I thought it was worth sharing again. For those of you who are interested in the thinking behind the class, I recently published a piece demonstrating its underlying assumptions through an analysis of The Space Merchants, a classic SF novel dealing with the future of advertising Otherwise, without much more fanfare, here’s the syllabus.

              COMM 620: Science Fiction as Media Theory 

4 units

Fall 2020 – Tuesdays – 12:30-3:20 p.m.

Section:20900D

Location: https://blackboard.usc.edu/

Instructor: Henry Jenkins

Office:ASC-101C

Office Hours: Virtual office hours by appointment. Contact assistant. (Info below.)

Contact Info: hjenkins@usc.edu

Assistant: Amanda Ford

Contact Info: amandafo@usc.edu 

          Course Description

This class explores the ways that science fiction—sometimes known as speculative fiction—has historically functioned as a form of vernacular theory about media technologies, practices, and institutions. As recent writings about "design fictions" illustrate, these speculations have, in turn, inspired the developers of new technologies, as well as those who create content for such platforms, helping to frame our expectations about the nature of media change. And, increasingly, media theorists—raised in a culture where science fiction has been a pervasive influence—are drawing on its metaphors as they speculate about virtual worlds, cyborg feminism, post-humanism, and afro-futurism, among a range of other topics.

This seminar will explore the multiple intersections between science fiction and media theory, reading literary and filmic fictions as theoretical speculations and classic and contemporary theory as forms of science fiction. The scope of the course ranges from technological Utopian writers from the early 20th century to contemporary imaginings of digital futures and steampunk pasts. Not simply a course on science fiction as a genre, this seminar will invite us to explore what kinds of cultural work science fiction performs and how it has contributed to larger debates about communication and culture.

          Student Learning Outcomes 

By the end of the course, students will be able to:

·      describe the historic relationship between speculative fiction and media theory. 

·      explain key movements in science fiction (such as technological utopianism, cyberpunk, steampunk) and discuss their relationship to larger theories of media change.

·      trace the roots of contemporary media theories of cyborg feminism, afrofuturism, and trans/post-humanism back through science fiction films and literature.

·      develop their own critical account of how ideas about media and technology have been shaped by the discourses associated with science fiction.

       Required Readings and Supplementary Materials

·      Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451

·      Frederik Pohl and Cyril M. Kornbluth, The Space Merchants

·      Pat Cadigan, Mindplayers

·       Paolo Bacigalupi, The Windup Girl 

·       One of the following: 

o  Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Sower, original novel, Audible audiobook, or Damian Duffy and John Jennings, Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Sower: A Graphic NovelAdaptation

o  Walidah Imarisha, adrienne maree brown, et al. Octavia’s Brood: Science Fiction Stories from Social Justice Movements

o  Charlie Jane Anders, Lesley Nneka Arimah, et al., The People’ s Future of the United States

o  Cory Doctorow, Radicalized. Available for $3 as ebook at https://craphound.com/category/radicalized-full/

All else is on Blackboard.

  Description and Assessment of Assignments & Assignment Submission Policy 

All assignments (except for Blackboard posts) should be submitted via email to the instructor by 5 p.m. on the due date.

1.    Blackboard Posts: Each week, students will post a reaction to the readings via the class Blackboard site. The reaction might be a comment, a question, or a provocation, and often will be a complex mixture of all of the above. It can be informal and need not be more than a few paragraphs, but it should show the student's thinking process in response to the topics and materials being encountered that week. This is the primary mechanism by which I will be monitoring your mastery of the core concepts of the class. You need not respond to every reading each week, but there should be signs of close reading and critical engagement. (30%)

2.     Media Analysis Paper: Applying the concepts of science fiction as a "design platform" that we will encounter in the first class session, students will choose a film, television series, or game which they feel offers a particularly vivid embodiment of a science fiction concept and provide an analysis which considers the thinking behind this representation of future media or technology, the ways this concept gets deployed through the story and the values which become associated with it, and how this concept may be deployed as a springboard for creative thinking about the development of future media tools, platforms, or processes. Along the way, students might consider the differences between embodying these concepts in an audio-visual media as opposed to the ways they might be dealt with in a literary text. The result should be a short but impactful essay (roughly 5-7 pages). (20%)

3.     Theory Analysis Paper:A key theme in our discussions is the idea that science fiction functions much like theory, to speculate about the implications of current social, economic, political, cultural, or technological practices and to envision potential outcomes of current trends. In this paper, students will reverse their lens and examine theory as a form of speculative fiction. Students will select a work of media theory and discuss what they see as its vision for the future (whether implicit or explicit). What does it have to say about the nature of media change? Does it see people as moving towards a utopian or dystopian future? What, if any, explicit use does it make of metaphors drawn from science fiction as it constructs its vision for the future? What kinds of response does it seek from its readers to the problems or potentials that it has identified? Students shall produce a short, impactful essay (5-7 pages) which demonstrates close reading of the theoretical text and an ability to push analysis beyond what's explicitly on the page. (20%)

4.     Final Paper: Students, in consultation with the professor, will develop a distinctive project which emerges from the intersection between their research interests and the course content. The result can either be a creative project or a paper, though either should show the ability to construct an argument and mobilize evidence in support of their core claims and should show a grasp of the basic conceptual framework of the course. Students will be asked to give a short class presentation, sharing their project and its implications with their classmates, as part of the process of developing and refining their ideas. (30%)

5.     Participation: Students are expected to come to class prepared and ready to participate in discussions around these materials. On most days, we have one or more guest speaker, so it is especially important to bring questions to gain maximum benefit from their experiences and expertise.

Each activity here builds on the previous ones, so it is important to meet deadlines in the class.  

Unless specified otherwise, I expect to fill the designated class period with a mix of discussions, activities, and guest visitors, so students should plan, under normal circumstances, to stay for the class period.

      Breakdown of Grade

·      Blackboard Posts (30%)

·      Media Analysis Paper (20%)

·      Theory Analysis Paper (20%)

·      Final Paper (30%)

     Course Schedule: A Weekly Breakdown

Important note to students:Be advised that this syllabus is subject to change—and probably will change—based on the progress of the class, events, and/or guest speaker availability, where relevant.  Students should consult the Registration Calendar for dates regarding add/drop deadlines, fees, grading options, etc.

TUESDAY, JANUARY19TH

Week 1: Science Fiction as Design Fiction

·      Students will watch Minority Reportprior to the first class session.

·      Brian David Johnson, excerpt from Science Fiction Prototyping: Designing the Future with Science Fiction (Morgan and Claypool, 2011), pp.9-32.

·      Philip K. Dick, "The Minority Report," Selected Stories of Philip K. Dick (New York: Random House, 2002), pp. 227-264.

·      Bruce Sterling, "Design Fiction," Interactions 16(3), May-June 2009, pp. 20-24.

·      Ann Pendleton-Julian and John Seeley Brown, excerpt from Design Unbound(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2018).

·      The Ezra Klein Show, “I Build a World with Fantasy Master N. K. Jemison.” 

TUESDAY, JANUARY 26TH

Week Two: Technological Utopianism

·      Howard P. Segal, "The Vocabulary of Technological Utopianism" and "American Visions of Technological Utopia," Technological Utopianism in American Culture(Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005), pp. 10-44.

·      Edward Bellamy, excerpt from Looking Backward, Chapter 1-12, pp. 3-72.

·      Katharine Burdekin, excerpt from Proud Man13-62.

·      W. E. B. Dubois, “The Comet”  (1920). 

·      José Vasconcelos, “The Cosmic Race” (1925). 

·      (Reccomended) Alexis Lothian, “Dystopian Impulses, Feminist Negativity, and The Fascism of the Baby’s Face,” Old Futures: Speculative Fiction and Queer Possibility(New York: New York University Press, 2018), pp. 57-87

·        

TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 2ND

Week Three: The Origins of Science Fiction

·      Andrew Ross, "Getting Out of the Gernsbeck Continuum," Strange Weather: Culture, Science and Technology in the Age of Limits(London: Verso, 1991), pp. 100-135

·      John W. Campbell, "Twilight" (pp. 40-63); Lester del Rey, "Helen O'Loy" (pp. 62-73); Theodore Sturgeon, "Microscopic God" (pp. 115-142); and Clifford Simak, “Huddling Place” (pp. 261-280) in Robert Silverberg (ed.), Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Vol. 1, (New York, NY: Orb Books, 2005).

·      Vannevar Bush, "As We May Think" (pp. 35-48); Alan Turing, "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (pp. 49-64); Nobert Wiener, and "Men, Machines, and the World About" (pp. 65-72), in Noah Wardrip-Fruin and Nick Montfort (ed.), The New Media Reader(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).

TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 9TH

Week Four: Postwar Dystopias

·      George Orwell, "Politics and the English Language." 

·      George Orwell, 1984, Chapter One.

·      Aldous Huxley, Brave New World, pp. 1-44, 117-131.

·      Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451.

TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 16TH

Week Five: The Space Merchants and American Advertising

·      Vance Packard, excerpt from The Hidden Persuaders(New York: Ig, 2007), pp. 31-64.

·      Jules Henry, "Advertising as a Philosophical System," Culture Against Man(New York: Vintage, 1965), pp. 45-99.

·      Frederik Pohl and Cyril M. Kornbluth, The Space Merchants(New York: St. Martins, 1958).

·      Frederik Pohl, "Tunnel Under the World" (pp. 1-34) and "Happy Birthday, Baby Jesus" (pp. 62-85), The Best of Frederik Pohl(New York: Sidgewick and Johnson, 1977).

·      Henry Kuttner, “All Mimsy Were the Borogroves,” "The Twonky," The Best of Henry Kutner(New York: Ballantine, 1975), pp. 167-189.

TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 23TH

Week Six: Cordwainer Smith and Psychological Warfare

·      Paul M.A. Linebarger, excerpt from Psychological Warfare(New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1948), pp. 43-92.

·      Cordwainer Smith, "Scanners Live in Vain" (pp. 65-95); "The Dead Lady of Clown Town" (pp. 223-286); "The Ballad of Lost C'Mell" (pp. 401-417); "A Planet Named Shayol" (pp. 419-448, The Rediscovery of Man: The Complete Short Science Fiction of Cordwainer Smith(Boston: Boston Science Fiction Association, 1993).

TUESDAY, MARCH 2ND

Week Seven: Altered States

·      Alvin Toffler, "Diversity," Future Shock(New York: Bantam, 1984), pp. 283-322.

·      Betty Friedan, "The Problem That Has No Name" (pp. 57-78) and "The Crisis in Women's Identity," The Feminine Mystique(New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 2001), pp.123-136.

·      James Tiptree Jr., "The Women Men Don't See," in Brian Atteby and Ursula K. Le Guin (eds.), The Norton Book of Science Fiction(New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), pp. 255-279.

·      Pamela Zoline, "Heat Death of the Universe," in Pamela Sargent (ed.), The New Women of Wonder(New York: Vintage, 1978), pp. 100-119.

·      Kate Wilhelm, "Baby, You Were Great," in Pamela Sargent (ed.), Women of Wonder (New York: Vintage, 1974), pp. 139-158.

·      Imaginary Worlds: The Mysterious James Tiptree. 

TUESDAY, MARCH 9TH

Week Eight: Cyberpunk 

·      Bruce Sterling, "Preface" (pp. XX); James Patrick Kelly, "Solstice;" (pp. 66-104); Bruce Sterling and Lewis Shiner, "Mozart in Mirrorshades" (pp. 223-239); and John Shirley, "Freezone;" (pp. 139- 177), in Bruce Sterling (ed.), Mirrorshades: A Cyberpunk Anthology(Berkeley, CA: Ace Books, 1988).

·      William Gibson, "Johnny Mnemonic," Burning Chrome(New York: Ace, 1986), pp.1-22.

·      Samuel R. Delaney, "Some Real Mothers: An Interview with Samuel R. Delaney," in Silent Interviews(Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1994), pp. 164-185.

TUESDAY, MARCH 16TH

Week Nine: Cyborg Feminism

·      Anne Balsamo, "Signal to Noise: On the Meaning of Cyberpunk Subculture," in Frank Biocca and Mark R. Levy (eds.),Communication in the Age of Virtual Reality(New York, NY: Routledge, 1995), pp. 347-368.

·      N. Katherine Hayles, "Towards Embodied Virtuality," in How We Became Posthuman: Virtual Bodies in Cybernetics, Literature, and Informatics(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1999), pp. 1-24.

·      Ray Kurzweil, "The Six Epochs" (pp.7-34) and "Eich bin ein Singularitarian" (pp. 369-390), The Singularity is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology, (London, England: Penguin, 2006), pp. 7-34.

·      C.L. Moore, "No Woman Born," in Mary Flanagan and Austin Booth (eds.), Reload: Rethinking Women and Cyberculture(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002), pp. 261-300.

·      Pat Cadigan, Mindplayers(Orion, 2000).

·      Aja Romano, “Janelle Monae’s Body of Work Is A Masterpiece of Modern Science Fiction,” Vox, May 16 2018. 

·      Donna Harroway, "Cyborgs at Large," in Constance Penley and Andrew Ross (eds.), Technoculture(Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), pp. 1-20.

TUESDAY, MARCH 23RD 

Week Ten: Wellness Day

TUESDAY, MARCH 30TH 

Week Eleven: Steampunk and Ecofuturism

·      Rebecca Onion, "Reclaiming the Machine: An Introductory Look at Steampunk in Everyday Practice," Neo-Victorian Studies1(1), Autumn 2008, pp. 138-163.

·       Naomi Klein, excerpt from No Is Not Enough: Resisting Trump’s Shock Politics and Winning the World We Need (Boston: Haymarket, 2017[MOU1] ).

·       “A Message from the Future With Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez,” The Intercept, April 17, 2019.

·      “The Solarpunk Manifesto.” 

·      Imaginary Worlds, “Solarpunk The Future.” 

·       Paolo Bacigalupi, The Windup Girl (Night Shade Books, 2009).

Guest Speaker:Ed Finn, Director, Center for Science and the Imagination, Arizona State University

TUESDAY, APRIL 6TH

Week Twelve: Octavia Butler and Her Legacy 

·      Alex Zamalin, “Octavia Butler and the Politics of Utopian Transcendence,” Black Utopia: The History of an Idea from Black Nationalism to Afrofuturism(New York: Columbia University Press, 2019), 123-136. 

·      Engage with Parable of the Sowerthrough one of the following:

o   Octavia Butler’s original novel

o   Audible audiobook

o   Damian Duffy and John Jennings, Octavia Butler’s Parable of the Sower: A Graphic NovelAdaptation (Seattle: Abrams, 2019). 

·      Octavia Butler, “The Evening and The Morning and the Night.”

·      Sami Schalk, “Interpreting Disability Metaphor and Race in Octavia Butler’s ‘The Evening and the Morning and the Night’,” African American Review50(2), 2017, pp. 139-151. (Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/afa.2017.0018)

TUESDAY, APRIL 13TH

Week Thirteen: Afrofuturism and Global Science Fiction 

·      Alondra Nelson, “’Making the Impossible Possible’: An Interview with Nalo Hopkinson,” Social Text20(2), 2002, pp. 97-113.

·      Elizabeth C. Hamilton, “Afrofuturism and the Technologies of Survival,” African Arts50(4), Winter 2017, pp. 18-23.

·      Suzanne Newman Fricke, “Indigenous Futurisms in the Hyperpresent Now,” World Art 9(2), 2019, pp. 107-121.

·     Alexis Pauline Gumba, “Evidence” (pp. 33-42)[MOU2] ; Walidah Imarisha, “Black Angel” (pp. 43-56); Morgann Philips, “The Long Memory” (pp. 57-78); Mia Mingel, “Hollow” (pp.109-122) Autumn Brown, Small and Bright” (pp. pp.79-880; Gabriel Teodros, “Lalibela” (pp. 123-134), and Adrienne Marie Brown, “Outro,” (pp. 279-282 in Adriene Marie Brown and Walidah Imarisha (eds.), Octavia’s Brood: Science Fiction Stories from Social Justice Movements(New York: AK Press, 2015).

TUESDAY, APRIL 20TH

Week Fourteen: Science Fiction and Social Change

·      A. Merc Rustad, “Our Aim Is Not To Die” (pp. 27-47); Malka Older, “Disruption and Continuity” (pp. 84-92) Ashok K.  Baker, “By His Boostraps” (pp. 133-144); N. K. Jemison, “Give Me Cornbread or Give Me Death” (pp. 298-306); Charles Yu, “Good News, Bad News” (pp. 307-320), in Victor Lavalle and John Joseph Adams (eds.), A People’s Future of the United States (New York: One World, 2019).

·      Cory Doctorow, “Model Minority,” Radicalized: Four Tales for Our Present(New York: Tor, 2020), pp. 111-180. 

·      Mariabe Kambe, “Justice,” in Alexandria Brodsky and Rachel Kauder Nalebuff (eds.) The Feminist Utopia Project: Fifty-Seven Versions of a Wildly Better World(New York: The Feminist Press at CUNY, 2015), pp. X

·     Curtis Marez, “Farm Worker Futurism Today,” Farm Worker Futurism: Speculative Technologies of Resistance(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2016), pp. 155-182.

TUESDAY, APRIL 27TH

Week Fifteen: Student Presentations

How Do You Like It So Far?: Here's What You Missed This Season

When we started our podcast, How Do You Like It So Far?, the title was something of an inside joke. We were trying something neither of us had done before. We wanted your feedback so we could get better. We didn’t get much feedback, to be honest, because we didn’t have many listeners but we did get better — practice makes perfect. And our title became about something more — encouraging us to reflect each week on popular culture in a changing world. This has been a rough year and it has pushed us to reflect more deeply. And as a result, we finished what my cohost Colin Maclay and I think has been our strongest season yet. We had great conversations with great quests and I wanted to share them with you as a package having recently wrapped that season, Here’s what you missed:

Episode 67 Pandemic, Pedagogy and Politics — This was an end of summer reflection about the world around us that ranged from reflections on how the Covid-19 lockdown was impacting various media and how it shaped the Republican and Democratic national conventions to thoughts about the Black Lives Matter protests, the census, and home schooling.

Episode 68 The Business of Fandom — Susan Kresnicka is one of the leading fandom researchers consulting with the media industry as they seek to understand their fans; Suzanne Scott wrote Fake Geek Girls; Fandom, Gender, and the Convergence Culture Industry and has been a sharp critic of how the media industry interacts with its fans. They had never met before and we thought something interesting might emerge if we brought them together for the show. They took over the show and we could barely get a word in edge-wise during this stereotype-shattering conversation about fandom and the media industry.

Episode 69 The Power of Fan Activism — Here, we brought together Janae Phillips from the Harry Potter Alliance and Shawn Taylor from Nerds of Color, for a far-ranging discussion of fan activism as a model for social change. They had much to say about how merging fan and activist identities increased the sustainability of social movements by bringing more joy and pleasure to the effort.

Episode 70 How the Babysitters Club Changed Asian-American Culture — We are joined by Sue Ding, whose film, The Claudia Kishi Club, launched on Netflix alongside their recent Babysitters Club series and interviews a range of contemporary Asian-American artists and writers about their childhood fascinating with Claudia Kishi. We use this topic as a starting point for considering representational politics and amplifying the voices of Asian-American producers, ending with some cool reflections on the importance of the Fast and Furious franchise.

Episode 71 The Undocumented Document Themselves — Set Hernandez Longkilyo is an undocumented queer filmmaker who documents the lives and political struggles of other undocumented peoples. His films also considers the everyday practices by which these people document their own lives and find the voice to tell their own stories. Here, he sounds off about the struggles for self-representation the community faces and their efforts to organize to tell their own stories in their own terms.

Episode 72 Religion, Sports and Popular Culture Are the Same/Seeking Sanctuary During the Apocalypse: USC’s Dean of Religious Life, Varun Soni is a remarkable guy who has a unique perspective on popular culture. Here, we range from his work counseling students during the pandemic to discussions of sports and ritual and Bob Marley as a religious prophet.

Episode 73 Increasing Visibility Is Essential for Native Communities — We check in with Crystal Echohawk, founder and CEO of IllumiNative, a research-driven initiative created and led by Natives that is challenging negative narratives and supporting accurate and authentic portrayals of Native communities in pop culture. She shares what’s been happening for Natives during 2020, from land rights struggles to coping with Covid-19 to achieving some real breakthroughs in terms of representation in popular culture.

Episode 74 Horror, Social Change, and Experimentation — In this discussion of the horror genre as a site of protest and experimentation across media. we talk to Campfire’s Michael Monello about his Shutter podcast Video Palace and Qiana Whitted who wrote a Eisner-Award Winning book about EC Comics. Between us, we cover horror in film, literature, radio/podcast, comics, and television, not to mention in the context of our everyday lives. I am a longtime monster buff while Colin is horror-curious but mostly new to the genre. A good time was had by all.

Episode 75 Play as a Precursor to Participation — Benjamin Stokes wrote a book about games as tools for enhancing civic engagement and Reanne Estrada is an artist and advocate in Los Angeles. They think we should take to the streets, when it’s safe to do so, not only to protest but also to celebrate, create, perform, and play as a means of rebuilding our connections with each other.

Episode 76 Skateboarding Subcultures Surprises — Neftalie Williams is a lifelong skateboarder and skateboarding advocate, while Zoe Corwin is a newbie who is grounded in educational research. They have been working together to study the educational and social benefits of skateboarding culture especially for youth of color around the world. Much of what they have found will surprise you — it certainly surprised us — but like the last episode, it gives us hope in terms of what’s going to happen next for American cities.

Episode 77 From Hip Hop to TikTok — Dexter Thomas is a Vice reporter who shares reflections about subjectivity and American journalism, his doctoral research on the Hip Hop scene in Japan, and explores how he thinks TikTok is changing American culture and politics. This is like our interview with Varun Soni an expansive discussion, one that hits one high note after the next, and the perfect way to end our season.

There’s something here which should grab your attention — otherwise, I don’t understand why you are reading this block. Check us out. Look at our notes which allow you to drill deeper into everything being discussed. And then try some of the other episodes, because we are mapping contemporary popular culture and its connections with social change; there’s a method to our madness and we see the topics being discussed as connected, as part of a larger culture shift changing our world. How do you like it so far?

Youth Power in Precarious Times: Interview with Melissa Brough (Part Two)

Why did you choose Medellin, Colombia, as the focus for your project? What makes this city a particularly rich site for understanding "youth power in precious times"?

I first visited Medellín in 2009 to attend the Our Media/Nuestros Medios conference on community/participatory media. I was struck by the ways in which Medellín was rebranding itself as a participatory city, with taglines like, “Medellín gobernable y participativa” (“Medellín, governable and participatory”). The Mayor’s Office had pasted its insignia and phrases like this throughout the city. On the very same streets, I noticed graffiti messages about non-violence and participation, or witnessed hip hop concerts in which young people were talking about making their voices heard and engaging in community development. It seemed like everywhere I turned people were invoking the idea of participation as a way to stabilize and rebuild a city that had been devastated by narcotrafficking and urban warfare. 

Until the early 2000s, Medellín had been famous on the world stage as the murder capital of the world and the home of the notorious drug trafficker Pablo Escobar. In 2004 the Compromiso Ciudadano party (which can be translated as “Civic Engagement” or “Citizens’ Commitment” ) came into power -- the first independent party to hold the Mayor’s office -- built on a unique coalition that included leaders of grassroots organizers as well as business leaders and others.  The administration oversaw the development of dramatic changes to the urban landscape, like park libraries, situated in some of the poorest parts of the city. These served as striking physical symbols of their various efforts to integrate poorer neighborhoods and make the city more stable and governable. 

During this period Medellín enjoyed an era of relative peace and became internationally recognized for its urban revitalization projects -- so much so that some even referred to it (hyperbolically, I would argue) as “the miracle of Medellín.” In 2013, for example, Citigroup, the Wall Street Journal, and the Urban Land Institute named Medellin, Colombia, the “Innovative City of the Year,” describing Medellín’s transformation thus: 

“Few cities have transformed the way that Medellín, Colombia’s second largest city, has in the past 20 years. Medellín’s homicide rate has plunged, nearly 80% from 1991 to 2010. The city built public libraries, parks, and schools in poor hillside neighborhoods and constructed a series of transportation links from there to its commercial and industrial centers. . . . The local government, along with businesses, community organizations, and universities worked together to fight violence and to modernize Medellín. . . . In addition, Medellín is one of the largest cities to successfully implement participatory budgeting, which allows citizens to define priorities and allocate a portion of the municipal budget. Community organizations, health centers, and youth groups have formed, empowering citizens to declare ownership of their neighborhoods.”

 During this period the city also fashioned itself as an emerging digital hub of Latin America, drawing tech companies like Hewlett Packard to open regional offices there, and launching a number of digital portals with the stated aim of cultivating more “digital citizens”. These initiatives had varying degrees of success, but nonetheless added to the ethos of citizen participation that the Compromiso Ciudadano party was advocating.  

So the first reason I felt Medellín was an important site of study was because of the strategic use of discourses of participation at multiple levels of society, from the grassroots to the business sector to government officials. The second reason was that young people had been both the primary protagonists and victims of the violence that had decimated the city’s social fabric. This was largely due to an economic downturn and political disenfranchisement suffered by the city’s low-income youth, who often felt they had no better choice than to join a gang. Young people were recruited by multiple armed actors, from street gangs to guerrilla groups to paramilitaries to carry out their violent biddings in what some described as a “death market.” At the same time, young people also became central actors in the non-violent social movements that were struggling to shift the dynamics of violence.   

One of my first interviews with youth in Medellín was with two hip hop artists/activists who lived in Comuna 13, one of the poorest and most notoriously violent parts of the city. At the end of our interview they offered to give me the cell phone numbers of some officials in the mayor’s office. In Colombia, large municipal governments have a relatively high degree of autonomy and power, and operate somewhat like city-states in which mayors enjoy fairly high-profile visibility and influence. What’s more, the city’s political elite had traditionally been just that -- elite, quite distanced from the lower-income communities in the city. So I was rather surprised that youth from one of the most marginalized communities in the city had a direct line to the city’s center of power. As I investigated this dynamic I realized that it was a sign of the ways in which the people of Medellín, under the two Compromiso Ciudadano administrations (Mayor Sergio Fajardo, 2004-2007, and Mayor Alonso Salazar, 2008-2011) were cultivating an ecology of participation unlike any I personally had ever seen before. As I describe in the book, it was a civic polyculture, in which the participation of youth from low-income neighborhoods was, at its best, valued as much as that of civil society organizations or political institutions. This polycultural ecosystem of participation was a key dynamic in helping to transform the city -- and harnessing youth power toward that end. For all of these reasons, it offered an important case study for understanding the powerful role young people can play in challenging and changing systems of inequality, violence, economic precarity, and injustice. 

As I describe in the final chapter of my book, the case of Medellín offers several insights that are relevant around the globe today pertaining to: the disconnection between youth and traditional civic and political institutions; democracy-building and peace-building; participatory budgeting, which is growing in popularity in several countries including the U.S. and Canada; and fostering meaningful digital participation, citizenship and activism, among others. I also describe the limitations of discourses and practices of participation while still offering a hopeful way forward. 

All of that said, the way forward is not to reify youth power, placing all hope in future generations as a way for those currently in power to turn a blind eye or remain complicit while public institutions around the world are floundering and human societies seem to be careening toward global ecological disaster. Youth Power in Precarious Times advocates listening to, empowering, and engaging youth voices -- but not as a way to abdicate older generations’ (including my own) immediate responsibility and accountability for the impact of our actions on the future. It is not their job to save us.

Works Cited

Cooke, Bill, and Uma Kothari, eds. Participation: The New Tyranny? London: Zed Books, 2001.

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos. 30th anniversary edition. New York: Continuum, 2003.

Garcés Montoya, Ángela. Nos-otros los Jóvenes: Polisemias de las Culturas y los Territorios Musicales en Medellín. Medellín, Colombia: Universidad de Medellín, 2005.

Gumucio Dagron, Alfonso, and Thomas Tufte, eds. Communication for Social Change Anthology: Historical and Contemporary Readings. South Orange, NJ: cfsc Consortium, 2016.

Participatory Budgeting Project, https://www.participatorybudgeting.org/case-studies/

Reguillo, Rossana. Culturas Juveniles: Formas Políticas del Desencanto. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 2013.

Riaño, Pilar. Women in Grassroots Communication: Furthering Social Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994.

Rodríguez, Clemencia. Citizens’ Media against Armed Conflict: Disrupting Violence in Colombia. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001.

 Melissa Brough is Assistant Professor of Communication & Technology in the Department of Communication Studies at California State University Northridge. Her research focuses on the relationships between digital communication, civic/political engagement and social change. Much of her work considers the role of communication technology in the social, cultural, and political lives of youth from historically disenfranchised groups. Her research has been published in Social Media + Society, Mobile Media and Communication, the International Journal of Communication, and the Johns Hopkins Guide to Digital Media, among others. Her first book, Youth Participation in Precarious Times: The Power of Polycultural Civics (2020), is now available from Duke University Press.

For more information, and to order the book directly from Duke University Press at a 30% discount please visit Youth Power in Precarious Times: Reimagining Civic Participation and enter the coupon code E20BROGH at checkout.

Youth Power in Precarious Times: Interview with Melissa Brough (Part One)

When I first came to USC more than 11 years ago, one of the first students I met was Melissa Brough, who challenged me to rethink some core assumptions about participatory culture by calling my attention to critical writings from Latin America. Through the years since, she has continued to hold my feet to the fire. She wrote a brilliant dissertation growing out of the field work she had done with various youth initiatives in Medellín, Colombia. She managed to deftly thread the needle with a committee which included myself, Manuel Castells, Sarah Banet-Weiser and others. She wrote a really provocative overview of various forms of fan activism with Sangita Shresthova for Transformative Works and Cultures.

And now she has published her first book coming out of this research, Youth Power in Precarious Times: Rethinking Civic Participation. This work merges a deep theoretical engagement with multiple traditions of writing about participation with some substantive observations from the field considering why these theories matter in terms of their application to the problems confronting the Global South. Any of us writing about participatory culture, learning, and politics need to engage seriously with this book. This interview will give you a preview of what you will find there.

From the start, you have described your project in terms of an effort to bridge between debates concerning participation as it has been framed in the “global north” and the “global north.” What can you tell us about the historic debates around participation, particularly youth participation, in Latin America?

In 2000 I spent a summer working with the Chiapas Media Project (CMP), a video project in Southern Mexico that helped train indigenous communities to produce their own videos, often in association with the Zapatista movement. The CMP was just shifting from linear to non-linear digital editing at that time, and I had the great privilege of teaching their indigenous filmmakers how to edit in Final Cut Pro. In the process, they taught me about a totally different style of video production than what I’d been taught in school; one that prioritized the needs of the community through a collectivist, collaborative process of video making. I ended up writing my undergraduate thesis about this project, and in so doing was introduced to decades of literature and case studies in participatory communication. So my first exposure to the idea of participatory media was not Web 2.0; it was participatory media as it had been practiced for decades across Latin America.  

 (Photo thanks to Chiapas Media Project)

Latin American theorists, practitioners and researchers of community participation have really been at the forefront of this topic for decades, at least as far back as the Bolivian miners’ network of radio stations founded in 1949, which were initiated, owned, and operated by and for local community members to share information. Since then, many cases of participatory media, theater, etc. have been documented across Latin America and beyond; see, for example, Making Waves: Stories of Participatory Communication for Social Change. The field of Development Studies has done a better job to date of incorporating this body of knowledge and practice than have Media or Communication Studies. This is in part because Development Studies is primarily focused (for better or worse) on the so-called global South, whereas these other fields of study are typically very Western and Northern-centric. One of my motivations for doing this study was to try to push back against the dominant flow of information and scholarship from the global North to the global South and draw attention to these rich histories of participatory media, culture, and communication that most of the scholars in the U.S. were not aware of or acknowledging at the time.

Colombia in particular has been a nexus of participatory communication and other participatory projects for decades. I discuss this in Chapter 2 and elsewhere in my book, but Clemencia Rodriguez’s book Citizens’ Media Against Armed Conflict: Disrupting Violence in Colombia is another fascinating study of the rich fabric of citizens’ media and their wide range participatory practices in Colombia. (Note that both Rodriguez and I use the term “citizen” broadly, not confined to the legal status conferred by nation-states.) Pilar Riaño’s edited volume Women in Grassroots Communication: Furthering Social Change was also influential for me, along with the work of Paulo Freire, Robert Huesca, Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, Orlando Fals Borda, and many others. (For interested readers, several relevant texts are gathered in the Communication for Social Change Anthology compiled by Alfonso Gumucio Dagron and Thomas Tufte.) Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher most well known for his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970), is widely considered one of the most important theorists of participation of the 20th century. He described participation as being “an exercise in voice, in having voice, in involvement, in decision making at certain levels of power... a right of citizenship.” His work continues to influence participatory projects in Latin America and beyond. 

In terms of youth participation in particular, two of my favorite Latin American scholars are Rossana Reguillo (especially Culturas Juveniles) and Ángela Garcés Montoya (especially Nos-otros los Jóvenes). They both take the cultural and political work of young people seriously, and illuminate how power is struggled over and wielded through symbolic, cultural forms. But I learned the most by observing and collaborating with youth activists and artists in Medellín. It was their work, and their thinking, that led me to the insights offered in my book. 

As you note, “While some scholars suggest that participation has been rendered a nearly useless concept with its widespread proliferation and should perhaps be abandoned, this book contends that it is crucial to recuperate its analytical and practical utility in order to work towards more equitable, just societies.” Explain. Why do you see participation as an especially valuable concept in this context? What work needs to be done to reclaim and redefine it?

In many ways, participation in public life seems more critical but also more complicated than ever. Traditional civic and political institutions have been largely discredited, particularly among younger generations who do not see their identities and needs reflected in these institutions, and who enact their political will in non-traditional ways (much of which you and your team has been documenting for some time now). This disconnection between young people and traditional institutions has been well documented in many parts of the globe, including in Latin America. The dynamic of disconnection has been further exacerbated by a fragmented mediascape and the variously construed phenomenon of “fake news”.

With the rise of Web 2.0 discourses of participation in the global North went from being relatively fringe and often counter-hegemonic to being fully mainstreamed and commercialized. There are so many examples of this; one I find particularly relevant and darkly amusing is Flock Associates’ description of Mountain Dew’s “Dewmocracy” participatory marketing campaign. (Here’s a taste: “We proposed that the brand give the people their due [Dew?]—it was to be the ultimate Dewmocracy... with the ultimate goal of creating an elixir that will restore choice to the people. [Online game] players worked together to design the color, flavor, and feel of their elixir that will ultimately become the next Mountain Dew product... The people’s voices were heard... [bringing] forth on this continent a new Dew, conceived in liberty.”) It’s no wonder that the commercialization of the rhetoric of participation left a bitter taste in the mouths of those who had been advocating for more participatory democracy for decades; if the rhetoric of participation can be so easily and completely co-opted to sell soda, how useful is the concept anymore? And yet the de-popularization and delegitimization of traditional government and civic institutions -- and, crucially, the press -- is clearly benefiting only a very small number of traditional power holders. 

Participation never has been and never will be perfect. Participation is messy. Practitioners and researchers in international development have perhaps best documented both the promises and perils of participatory practices for community building, development, and empowerment. They’ve shown inefficiencies, inequalities, and corruption in processes of participation that were meant to promote democratic practices (see, for example, Cooke & Kothari’s collection, Participation: The New Tyranny?); I found instances of all of these in Medellín. You obviously cannot have a democracy without participation; but participation does not a democracy make. One of the arguments of my book is that it’s time to reclaim and redefine participation so that it can be demanded, enacted, grappled with, and improved. In this book I focus specifically on participation in civic and political life and define participatory public culture as one with “significant opportunities for horizontal decision making, based in practices of dialogic communication with low barriers to participation, through which issues of public consequence are negotiated. A participatory public culture is one in which the voices, interests, and participation of non-hegemonic groups are valued.” This definition articulates some of the key characteristics of a public culture that offers meaningful opportunities for participation. While I believe this definition is more specific and therefore more useful than the vague and sweeping ways in which participation is often talked about in the current moment, I also believe that participation is a concept that must continuously be interrogated, refined, and redefined to better account for how relations of power are enacted in and through it, and to take contextual and historical factors into account. 

One of the biggest lessons I learned from the case of Medellín is that if we think about and support participation ecologically, from grassroots youth activists to civil society organizations to local and state government and beyond -- and, crucially, the relationships between these -- we have a better chance of nurturing a functional, vibrant, and democratic public life. This is why I make the case for polycultural civics. Borrowing the concept from agriculture, polyculture (vs. monoculture) refers to the practice of cultivating different crops in the same space in a way that is mutually beneficial and enhances the overall ecosystem. I adapt it here to think about participation as a resource that can be cultivated in different ways at multiple levels, from the grassroots to institutions -- and to emphasize that the relationships between these are crucial. 

What happened in Medellín from 2004-2011 is that many actors in the “ecosystem” of Medellín’s public life began working together in mutually beneficial relationships, even if sometimes their agendas were in conflict or competition. For example, the municipal government created a participatory budgeting process that enabled citizens age 14 and above to participate in the allocation of 5% of the city’s annual budget. The process was not perfect, and went through several iterations. People and organizations competed for the resources. Yet, at the time of my research, the outcomes of the participatory budgeting process for communities throughout the city were largely positive -- particularly so for youth (as young as age 14), who were quite active in the process. 

That is not to say the participatory budgeting process wasn’t flawed and susceptible to manipulation by corrupt actors -- it certainly was. And it only accounted for a small percentage of the city’s overall budget. But the predominant impact of this ecosystem of participation was to increase the opportunities for citizens (especially youth, women, and other groups who were traditionally marginalized from city politics) to participate meaningfully in public life. In the process, citizens learned how to engage actively and effectively in the development and governance of their communities. It was an especially powerful civic and political education for youth, who were learning by doing. At the same time, the local government gained greater legitimacy locally and internationally. This was a polycultural relationship. And within it, the concept of participation was defined, contested, debated, and refined in the process. This is an example of how participation is contextually and historically contingent; it is shaped within particular contexts, practices, relationships, and histories.   

 So one of our key tasks is to be historically and contextually specific when we talk about participation -- with special attention to who gets to participate, how, who is defining the terms of participation, who benefits from the participation, who wields power within (and after) the process of participation, and what is the labor involved in participating. I’m writing this just weeks away from the U.S. presidential election, the day after the New York Times released information about Donald Trump’s tax returns. I am reminded to add the question, who doesn’t participate?, and what are the costs of that to an ostensibly democratic society? 

 Melissa Brough is Assistant Professor of Communication & Technology in the Department of Communication Studies at California State University Northridge. Her research focuses on the relationships between digital communication, civic/political engagement and social change. Much of her work considers the role of communication technology in the social, cultural, and political lives of youth from historically disenfranchised groups. Her research has been published in Social Media + Society, Mobile Media and Communication, the International Journal of Communication, and the Johns Hopkins Guide to Digital Media, among others. Her first book, Youth Participation in Precarious Times: The Power of Polycultural Civics (2020), is now available from Duke University Press.

For more information, and to order the book directly from Duke University Press at a 30% discount please visit Youth Power in Precarious Times: Reimagining Civic Participation and enter the coupon code E20BROGH at checkout.